LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 






UNITED STATES OF AMEEICA. 



STUDIES 



IN 



GENERAL HISTORY. 



MARY D.'^HELDON, "^ 

FOBMEBLT PKOrESSOR OF HISTORY IN WELLESLEY COLLEGE, 

AND TEACHER OF HISTORY IN OSWEGO 

NOBMAIi SCHOOL, N.Y. 



'"^k; 



SCeadjer's JHanuaL 



"/(^ is impossible that the history of any state should possess any interest 
unless it show some sort of development." — J. R. Seelet. 



BOSTON: 
D. C. HEATH & COMPANY. 

1886. 







THE LIBRARY i 
OF CONGRESS I 

WASHINGTON 



Copyright, Feb. 11, 1886, 
By MARY SHELDON BARNES. 



MOXONIHSVil 



J. S. CUSHING & Co., PrINTEBS, BOSTON. 



TO 

My best of Masters, 

^Professor 3. E* Serieg, 

This book is most gratefully 
dedicated. 



PEEFACE. 



THEY say my " Studies" are hard, and I am glad to hear 
it, for so in truth they should be, since history itself is 
hard. Our text-books in this subject have been mostly manuals 
of the results of this study, presented in more or less attrac- 
tive literary form. They have given no chance for any genuine 
work ; and yet the study of history demands most serious work ; 
like mathematics, it involves logic ; like language, it demands 
analysis and fine discrimination of terms ; like science, it calls 
for exact observation ; like law, it needs the cool, well-balanced 
judgment ; beyond all these, it requires the highest, fullest use 
of the sympathetic imagination. In fact, no stud}' is more dif- 
ficult ; none calls more completely on all the mental powers, none 
affords the mind more generous play. 

It is indeed easy to read and then repeat: " Magna Charta 
laid the foundation of English liberty" ; " The Athenian peo- 
ple were brave, patriotic, magnanimous, and highly-cultured" ; 
"The government of Lewis XIV. was arbitrary, corrupt, un- 
just, extravagant " ; but to read, or even to learn such sen- 
tences as these by heart, is not to stud}', or even to touch the 
study of history ; these are mere statements of the results of 
historical research; before he can name his work " study," the 
pupil must have found out some results for himself, by exercis- 
ing his own powers upon the necessary "raw material" of 
history ; let him read Magna Charta ; let him see the Athenian 
people in action in their contemporary world ; let him have the 
facts of French organization and administration under Lewis 
XIV. ; let him look, and look again, like Agassiz* famous 
pupil at the fish, until he sees the essential spirit, purpose, or 
character displayed within these words and deeds and figures ; 
thus he becomes a genuine student. By such practice, he 



VI PREFACE. 

learns, as a practical historian, to interpret social and political 
forms and facts, as the biologist learns to interpret living 
organisms by the actual dissection of a few typical forms, or 
as the mathematician fits himself to wrestle with new complica- 
tions by conquering well-set, formal problems ; in each case, 
actual work is done ; and nought but actual work knits us to 
reality. 

In teaching history in higher grades, three points must 
always be in mind : first, to give each student independent 
work ; next, to subject the results of solitary, individual thought 
to the freest criticism and discussion in the class-room ; last 
of all, the accepted results of the collective labor must be 
arranged in compact and logical order, and stowed awa}' in 
memory. By the solitar}' study of the individual, the mind 
gains power and originality; by the "free lance in a free 
field " of class-room work, the mind gains courage, sharpness, 
speed, and generous temper ; by the strict, close sifting of 
study and discussion, it gains concentration, clearness, and 
breadth. 

This mode of instruction is, in its essence, the famous 
"Seminary" method, first employed in Germany, and of late 
introduced into our own leading; colleo;es. To render its advan- 
tages available for large classes with limited libraries, and a 
limited course of historical study, I have made these two books : 
the Student's edition contains the material and the problems for 
independent study ; the Teacher's Manual contains the answers 
to these problems, embodied in tabulations, and a running com- 
mentar}^ of text, which may serve as suggestive for the discus- 
sions and the summaries demanded by the class-room. 

As for the advantage of this method to the teacher^ I can 
only say that I can but hope it will save him the tedium of the 
treadmill ; that it will bring him day by day the living, sympa- 
thetic touch of youthful thought and feeling ; and that, in 
time, the world may read with fairer, clearer meaning to 
himself. 

MARY SHELDON BARNES. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Preface . v-vi 

Civilized World Before 776 B.C. . . . . . 1-7 

Introductory 1-3 

A. Study on Egypt 3-4 

B. Study on Tigro-Euphrates Yalley .... 5 

C. Study on Phoenicia 6 

D. Study on Judaea 7 

Hellas 8-35 

A. Study on Heroic Age 9-13 

B. Study on Historic Greece . . . . . . 13-21 

C. Study on the Persian Wars 21-27 

D. Study on the Athenian Leadership ; Age of Perikles . 27-33 

E. F. Study on Period 431-338 33-35 

The Hellenistic, or Alexandrian Conquests and Kin(x- 

DOMS 36-39 

EoME 39-83 

Introductory ^ 39-40 

A, B.l. Study on Regal Rome and Prse-Punic Republic . 41-46 

B, II. Study on Republican Rome, Punic Period . . 46-52 

B. HI. Study on Republican Rome, Post-Punic Period . 53-58 

C. I. Study on Pagan Empire, Augustus to Diocletian . 58-65 

Teutonic Barbarians before 476 a.d 65-68 

C. n. Christian Empire, Constantine to Charlemagne . 68-83 

A. Christian Empire under Roman Control . . 69-75 
jB. and C. The West under Barbarian Control ; Empire 

of Charlemagne 76-83 



Vlll 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



European History, 814-1880 .... 
Introductory . 

A. Early Mediaeval Period; Charlemagne to the 

sades, 814-1095 . . . . . 

B. Study on Crusading Period 

C. Study on Later Mediaeval Period 

D. Kenaissance and Reformation Era . 

E. Modern Europe 

I. The " Old Regime," 1648-1789 . 
Aa. In Europe in General 
Ab. In France .... 

II. French Revolution and Wars of Napoleon 
French Revolution .... 
Napoleonic Rule .... 
Prussian Revolution 
III. The Nineteenth Century . 

In General 

Special Study on Germany 
Special Study on Italy . 
Socialism 



Cru- 



PA6B 

84-167 
84-85 



86-94 
94-100 
100-114 
115-127 
128-167 
128-140 
128-134 
134-140 
141-149 
141-144 
145-146 
146-149 
150-167 
150-162 

162 
162-166 

166 



STUDIES IN GENEEAL HISTORY. 



Ceadjer's Jttanual, 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



[N.B. — All page references are to the Students' Edition.] 



THE CIVILIZED WORLD BEFORE 776 B.C. 

Before the " Studies " are begun at all, the teacher should 
have a preliminary discussion of the meaning of the word 
" civilization." I have found it a very good plan to give the 
students for the first day's lesson this requirement for home 
work, — ''Make a list of all the reasons you have for calling 
yourselves civilized." You will find when the answers are 
brought the next day that you have plenty of material for dis- 
cussion and anah'sis. Since the greatest masters hesitate to 
define the word civilization, it will probabty be best in the 
class-room work simply to aim at some general, but clear ideas, 
which may strengthen and elucidate its meaning. The material 
brought by the pupils in answer to your question will probably 
enable you to make some such anal^'sis as follows : — 

CIVILIZATION. 
Proofs of. 

Houses, clothing, furniture, etc. 

Haihoads, roads, telegraphs, post-offices, etc. 

Books, pictures, schools, etc. 

Churches, societies, etc. 

The family and the home, etc. 

Government, courts of law, etc. 
Directions of. 

Material, industrial, and commercial. 

Intellectual and aesthetic. 

Religious. 

Social. 

Political. 
Present Area of European (progressive) Civilization. 



2 STUDIES IX GENERAL HISTORY. 

In discussing the present area of European (progressive) 
civilization, the teacher may ask the pupils how this civilization 
is difl'erent from that of China and India, and note that Euro- 
pean civilization is marked by progress as opposed to immo- 
bility. With some classes of pupils it may not be amiss to ask 
what classes of people in Europe and America are most civil- 
ized, requiring some proof for the answer given, and calling 
attention to the fact that in the most civilized countries, civili- 
zation in its higher directions is most widely diffused among all 
classes, although even in these countries, it is far from being 
equall}'^ so. 

This whole discussion should be treated simply and largely, 
giving room and freedom for all opinions, without any anxiety 
for particularly close or definite results, which are indeed un- 
desirable in dealing with such a subject. 

The pupils are now ready for the questions on p. 3. They 
will note that Egypt, the Tigro-Euphrates valley, Phoenicia, 
and Judfea, were each so protected from easy invasion, b}' 
mountains, rivers, deserts, and seas, and at the same time so 
fortunate in climate and so easily supported by agriculture or 
commerce, that men in these countries could devote a part, 
at least, of their time and strength to the various arts of 
civilization. This Oriental civilization would first enter Europe 
in the South, both because here Europe is easily reached from 
the East, and fairly protected f]-om invasion, being peninsular 
southward and guarded by mountain-barriers northward. 

If there be time, it will be interesting just here to notice the 
various modern states of Europe and see how far their political 
boundaries have natural defenses, Prussia being a very good 
example of a state without, and England of a state with, natu- 
ral boundaries. If the pupils have difficult}' in seeing that 
civilization will grow fastest where the protection from inva- 
sion is greatest, other things being equal, simply ask them to 
name some of the things which civilized people make and do, 
and they will soon see that time and quiet, and therefore a cer- 
tain amount of peace, are necessary to civilization. This 



STUDY ON EGYPT. 3 

point being made, they are ready to see how the deserts and 
mountains, rivers and seas, were so placed as to allow an early 
civilization along tlie Nile and Euphrates valleys, while their 
fertile soil, capable of feeding thousands with little toil, gave 
whole classes leisure for varied industries. It has been sus;- 
gested to me, moreover, that the rivers that traverse these 
great valle3'S made an easy means of communication between 
the various parts of their respective lands, — a point of great 
importance. 



A. STUDY 0^ EGYPT. 

The answers given to the questions on pp. 7 and 15, and on 
p. 3 concerning Egypt, may be summarized as follows : — 

EGYPT, 4000 (?) -1250 (?) B.C. 

Natural Advantages for Early Civilization. 

Protection from invasion by 

desert. 

seas. 
Abundance of food easily procured, by reason of 

climate. 

fertile soil. 

level surface. 

annual inundation of the Nile. 
Easy internal communication by means of the Nile. 

Organization of Society (Oriental) : aristocratic, theocratic, and 
monarchic, centred at Memphis and Thebes : — 
King: ruler, general, builder, \ 

Priests : scholars, authors, and officials, >- land-owners. 
Nobles : soldiers and officials, ) 

Common people, traders and artizans : embalniers, stone-cutters, 

engravers, jewellers, scribes, carpenters, cabinet-makers 

weavers, potters, glass-makers, etc., etc. 
Serfs, slaves, and captives: worked the land and served in 

the household, hewed and carried the stone, and made 

the brick for great public works. 



4 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Egypt. — Continued. 

Character of People and Civilization. 

Political : 

absolutism ; centralization of industrial, religious, and 

political life in the king, supported by land-owning 

privileged classes. 

Social: inequality. 

Industrial : high material development. 

Moral : 

obedience and kindness most admired. 

standard of morality high. 

Religious : 

polytheistic nature-worship, with monotheistic tendencies. 

absolute trust in immortality. 

belief in the ability of the gods to help men. 

close union of religion with the state, as shown in — 

importance of temples and privileges of priests. 

sacredness of king. 
Intellectual : 

attainment of culture in — 

literature. 

mathematics ; geometry, 

astronomy. 

medicine, 
great inequality of culture. 
Esthetic : 

admiration for solidity and size. 

Enduring Remains of Civilization. 

Monuments : pyramids, temples. 

Objects of fine and industrial art : sculpture, jewelry, etc. 
Knowledge : geometrical, mathematical, medical. 
Literature : theology, morals, poetry, fiction, historic records. 

In summarizing these results the teacher will find it necessary 
perhaps to give such terms as Oriental, monarchic, aristocratic, 
theocratic, absolutism, polytheism, monotheism, but in each 
case he should first give the pupils themselves the chance to 
apply the term. And when given, the word should he defined 
as exactly as possible by the pupils, in order that the teacher 
may be sure of its being understood in its application. 



STUDY ON THE TIGRO-EUPHKATES VALLEY. 5 

B. STUDY m THE TIGEO-EUPHKATES VALLEY. 

This study may be summarized as follows ; — 

TIGKO-EUPHRATES VALLEY. 
Natural Advantages for Early Civilization. 

Same as in Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates taking the place 
of the Nile. 
Organization of Society. 

Similar to that of Egypt (Oriental). 
Character of People and Civilization. 
Political and Social : 

as in Egypt, but centred at Babylon and Nineveh. 
Industrial : similar to that of Egypt. 

Moral : 

admiration for power. 

desire of wealth. 
Religious : 

polytheistic belief. 

belief in the power of the gods in human affairs, 
close union of religion with the state. 
Intellectual : 

attainment of culture in 
literature, 
mathematics, 
astronomy, 
inequality of culture. 
-Esthetic : admiration for the rich and brilliant. 
Enduring Remains. 

Objects of industrial art. 
Astronomical knowledge. 
Historic records (clay cylinders). 
Keliefs and sculptured figures of deities.^ 

In summarizing B^ particular attention should be called to 
the fact that the king is very positively the centre, not onl}^ of 
religious, but of industrial and intellectual life ; in fact, the 
king, his palaces and temples, embody and include the civiliza- 
tion of Babylon and Nineveh. 

* The object of the stone lions and bulls was not so much aesthetic as 
protective, magic qualities evidently being ascribed to them. (See p. 18.) 



6 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

O. STUDY ON PHCENIOIA. 
In this study the trade and commerce of the Phoenicians must 
be emphasized, and the pupils will see that ship-building, navi- 
gation, and some manufactures are necessary to a people living 
by trade ; that the Phoenicians would find the best -markets 
among civilized peoples, whose wants were greatest, and that by 
virtue of their occupation they were at once the greatest learners 
and the greatest teachers of antiquity : on the one hand, observ- 
ing the geography, the manners and customs, the arts and 
industries of all the people among whom they traded ; on the 
other, diffusing this knowledge by interchanging from land to 
land the various products of the Mediterranean basin. There 
is much proof that through their agency civilization began to 
urge its way into Europe along the line of the Greek coasts and 
islands. Summarize as follows : — 

PHOENICIA. 

Natural Advantages of Position. 

Protected from invasion by mountains and the sea. 
On the road from Egypt to Mesopotamia. 
Character of People and Culture. 

Industrial and commercial, centring in coast cities of Phoe- 
nicia, and in trading-posts (colonies). 
Great variety of occupations, as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, 
adding navigation, ship-building, lumbering, and mining ; 
slave-dealing, dyeing, ivory-carving. 
Enduring Remains of Civilization. 

Objects of industrial art throughout Mediterranean region 

(glass, pottery, metal-work). 
Knowledge of navigation, its methods, and routes.^ 
The leading Alphabets. 

In discussing the general questions on p. 25, let the interpre- 
tation of answers be very generous, simply maintaining this 
point : that the Oriental civilizations were prominently material, 
with germs of higher types appearing in their midst. 

1 The finding of bronze for tin was, according to Lenormant and Cheval- 
lier, one of the chief aims of Phoenician commerce. 



STUDY ON JUD^A. 7 

D. STUDY ON J[JD1;A. 

In this study the teacher will of course be careful to work 
entirely from the historical standpoint, avoiding any possible 
theological or sectarian discussion. I have taken special pains 
to present Judaea jastas I have presented Egypt or Phoenicia, 
in order that the student may see its historical relations. 

The following summary may be useful as a guide : — 

JUD^A. 
Advantages of Position. 

Protected from invasion by mountains, deserts, and the sea. 
Yicinity to Phoenicia and Egypt. 
Organization of Society : theocratic, monarchic. 
Characteristics of People and Culture. 
Political : 

close union of church and state. 

predominance of priestly and prophetic influence. 
Religious : 

pure monotheism. 

close relation of religion and practical life. 
Moral : 

high moral standard imposed by faith. 

great admiration for mercy and justice. 
Enduring Remains of Civilization. 
The monotheistic faith. 
Books of the Old Testament. 

With the material easily accessible in the Old Testament, the 
teacher may, if he thinks it desirable, carry this study still fur- 
ther, and note that the Jews were eminently a race of shepherds, 
farmers, warriors, and priests, with a serious, poetic tempera- 
ment easily seen in all their literature. 

In discussing the answers to the questions on p. 29, the 
teacher should allow the utmost freedom of opinion, simply 
requiring that any position taken should be sustained by facts. 
It is well to allow the pupils to feel that oftentimes there is a 
reasonable difference of opinion, while at the same time he 
should be led to understand that only those opinions are respect- 



8 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

able whicli have some sound basis iu realit}'. Thus, while there 
can hardly be a question but that among the Jews, the pure and 
upright priest, or the righteous vahant king were the popular 
ideals, and that among the Assyrians wealth was regarded 
above all things, it may very justly be questioned whether piety 
or power was the ruling ideal among the Eg3'ptians ; probably 
both ideals should be admitted. 

The following questions and topics are given as suggestions 
for essays or for dictation for examination ; — 

What can a watch teach us of its makers ? What characteristics of 
Egyptian art still strike us as admirable ? Aside from religion, name 
two or three points in which our civilization is superior to that of the 
Egyptians. What can the Temple of Solomon teach us historically? 
The greatness of Rameses. The palace of Sargon. The Phoenician 
sailor. The captive Jew in Babylon. Our Oriental debt, 

ooi^ioo 



HELLAS, 

STUDY ON JVIAP OF GREECE. 

After the preliminary study of the map of Europe, the pupils 
will easily answer the questions on the geography of Greece, 
and will see that while agriculture and grazing may be found 
throughout the country, Lacouia is especially fitted for agricul- 
ture, Arcadia for grazing, while Attica, adapted to fisiiing aud 
mining, most naturally invites, by its position, the trade of Asia 
and the islands. As for the actual relations of Greece and the 
civilization of Asia and Egypt, the myths (see pp. 33 and 34) 
indicate that Greece owed her start in civilization to the older 
countries. 

From the answers given by the pupils the teacher summarizes 
somewhat as follows : — 

GREECE. 
Geographic Advantages. 

Small states with natural defences. 
Eastward opening harbors. 



STUDY ON HEBOIC AGE. 

Vicinity to older civilizations. 
Vicinity of eastward leading islands. 
Insular and temperate climate. 
Variety of products, .•. ^ 
Variety of occupation. 

Agriculture (Laconia). 

Fishing, grazing (Arcadia). 

Quarrying, mining, trade (Attica). 



A. STUDY ON HEKOIO AGE ; HOMEEIO GKEEOE. 

The teacher should not undertake to summarize snay of the 
work in A until the studies on pp. 37, 39, 42, and 46 have been 
thoroughly mastered and discussed ; he may then tabulate as 
follows : — 

A. HOMEKIC GREECE. 
Peculiar Institutions. 
Amphictyony : 

Bound together by kinship and faith. 
Amphictyonic Council : 

Religious league, with Delphic Oracle as its centre. 
Political Organization (Monarchic). 
King: 

Leads in council. 
Leads in war. 
Law-giver and priest. 
Supported by 
plunder, 
gifts. 

produce of his own lands, 
sale of war-captives as slaves. 
Council of Elders : 

Advises and persuades 
king, 
people. 
Hears proposals. 
Judges the people. 

1 .-. — therefore, wherever used. 



10 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Homeric Greece. — Continued. 

General Assembly of people (Agora ; market-place meeting) : 
Hears announcements of king and princes. 
Expresses public opinion 

by shouting (approval), 
by silence (disapproval). 
Social Organization : Aristocratic and patriarchal, consisting of 
Classes : 

Nobles ; chiefs. 

Freemen (common people). 

1 Slaves 

bought, 
stolen, 
captured. 
Patriarchal.^ monogamic families. 
Characteristics of Civilization. 
Political : 

Participation of all free men in the government. 
Value of public opinion. 
Social : 

Patriarchal power tempered toward women by 
public opinion, 
religion, 
affection. 
Slavery, mild. 

Amusements, healthful and developing, consisting of 
physical contests, 
music, 
dancing, 
story-telling. 
Habits of equality, simplicity, hospitality. 
Industrial and commercial : 

Sources of material civilization, — Oriental, notably Phoe- 
nician and Egyptian. 
Great variety of occupation and interest (see list of gods, 

p. 36). 
Rapid growth of trade between various parts of Greece, 
encouraged by easy water communication and 
varied productions. 

1 In the case of the absence or death of the father, the son takes his 
place, as hi *he case of Telemachus. 



STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 11 

Religious : 

Belief, polytheistic and anthropomorphic, — 
Gods thought to be 
immortal . 

of superhuman power, 
subordinate to Zeus. 

influential and interested in human affairs, 
persuaded by 
hymns, 
sacrifices, 
prayers, 
obedience. 
Future life regarded as 

shadow of the present, 
undesirable and gloomy. 
Close relation of religion and life. 
Intellectual and aesthetic : 

Cultivation of music and poetry through religion. 
Beginning of sculpture and architecture. 
Permanent Remains of Homeric Age. 
Homeric poems : Iliad and Odyssey. 

Fortifications at Mykenee, in the Troad, and at other pre- 
historic sites. 
Objects of industrial work (pottery, metal-work) found at 
above sites. 

The teacher may find that the work on the Homeric age 
occupies what seems a disproportionate part of his time. My 
own experience has proved to me that a slow and thorough he- 
ginning made here pays^ and that time is actually made b3^ lei- 
surely conscientious work at the opening. In looking over the 
summary, the teacher must realize that the mind of the pupil for 
the first time entering history, finds many new and great ideas 
to assimilate ; fundamental ideas, also, several of them asso- 
ciated with new and difficult terms, with which he needs to 
be familiar through all his work. I cannot sufficiently empha- 
size this point. 

In the Araphictyony, for instance, he meets with a thoroughly 
characteristic organization of antiquity, namely, a society held 



12 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

together by the bonds of a common faith, and a common kinship, 
real or assumed. He should be helped to understand it hy 
reference to the Scottish clans, and to the churches and families 
of his own vicinity. By such reference he may be led to imagine 
the strength and value of these ancient bonds of union, as giv- 
ing real fighting power. In the political and social organization 
he should clearly apprehend in its large and simple features 
the little aristocratic state, where neither the king nor the slave 
is far removed from the mass of freemen ; by comparing the 
size of the Greek states with that of Egypt or Assyria, he will 
readily see that in a small state the king cannot easily remove 
himself from the very presence of the people and the consequent 
pressure of their opinions in regard to his actions ; while such a 
small state cannot well enrich itself nor its king by any other 
means than those of honest labor, since it cannot seize upon 
the wealth acquired by larger powers. Special pains should be 
taken that the Agora, or General Assembly, is understood as the 
actual democratic meeting of all adult freemen in the market- 
place, on any occasion when the presence of the whole people is 
required, either to give notice of an expedition or a danger or 
to announce a law ; the imagination should be stimulated to con- 
ceive clearly of a state of affairs where all common news comes 
by hearsay, and all common interests must be discussed by word 
of mouth ; in short, of days when there was neither a newspaper, 
a telegraph, nor a post-office. The importance of the Agora as 
the safeguard of liberty will then appear double, and it will be 
clearly perceived that it was the organ of public opinion. The 
point may be illustrated by the meeting of boys in the play- 
ground to talk over some common project or expedition. 

In discussing amusements, great stress should be laid on their 
admirable effect in developing physical and artistic excellence. 

In stud3ung religious characteristics, note that the gods are 
like men : (a) Physically ; they have the parts of the human 
body, and feel physical needs, (h) Emotionall}' ; they hate, 
fear, love, (c) Socially ; they also live in the patriarchal style. 
In other words, the Greek gods are of the complete anthro- 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE. 13 

pomorphic type. Although itself below the more spiritual and 
ideal type of the Hebrew Deity, it may be well to note in 
passing its superiority to the conceptions of Egypt or Assyria 
in its influence on human life. So far as possible, the joyous 
nature of the worship, and its influence on the temper of the 
people, should be emphasized. 

In general, the Greek migrations are southward and east- 
ward ; the early movement toward Thessaly is perhaps explained 
by its comparative size and fertility. 

Topics and Questions for Examinations and Essays. — What 

is the historic value of the Homeric poems ? A comparison of Homeric 
Greece and of the Jews in patriarchal times (Abraham and Ulysses) . 
What was the probable, and what was the certain, influence of the 
Trojan War on civilization? What traces of nature-worship in the 
Greek mythology, and what evidences of divine power seen in each of 
the natural objects thought to be under special divine dominion ? A 
scene at the Lion-gate of Mykense, 1000 B.C. Agamemnon's departure 
from Mykense. What points of resemblance between the Greek and 
Jewish faith ? What fundamental difference ? 



B. STUDY OF HISTOEIO GEEEOE, OR HELLAS, 776-500. 

Note. — The note and study on the map of Greece and her colonies, 
pp. 46, 47, are misplaced. They properly introduce B, and should be 
found at the opening of that study. Hence I place their discussion here. 

The map, pp. 44, 45, at once reveals that the Greeks 
were of essentially maritime habit, settling the coasts of every 
richly productive land within their reach, while their locations 
at river-mouths and on easily accessible shores show that their 
colonies were in reality trading-posts. The varied produc- 
tions of the Greek lands and the varied occupations of the 
Greek people encouraged the calling of the merchant and 
sailor, while at the same time it scattered the Greeks here and 
there along the fertile Mediterranean coasts, preventing any 
strong political or territorial unity, but making them a strong 
civilizing force among the barbarous nations. 



14 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

The whole study on p. 47 should be treated very freely and 
conversationally, a number of the questions admitting of more 
than one answer. Here, if he has not done so before, the 
teacher should impress upon the pupils that, to early traders, 
the water-ways are by far the easiest, cheapest, and safest 
roads for travel and commerce. 

So far as it is desirable to summarize the answers to these 
questions, they will be found embodied in the following general 
tabular view of B. 1 : — 

GENERAL HELLENIC DEVELOPMENT, 776-4Q0. 

Organizations and Institutions of Period. 

Colonies : trading-posts, united to mother-cities by kinship and 
worship. 

Aristocratic tribal states : examples, Sparta, Attica ; bonds of 
union, common descent (kinship) and worship. 

Olympic games,^ forming the centre of a loose religious Hel- 
lenic union (cf. Delphi). 

Characteristics of Period. 

Growth of colonies and commerce 

about Black Sea and Bosphorus (Byzantium). 
about ^gean. 

in Magna Greecia (Syracuse). 
Tendencies to Hellenic union seen in 
religion : 

games, — Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, etc. 

Delphic Oracle. 

amphictyonies. 

sacred war. 
language and literature ^ (Homer). 

1 In reckoning Olympiads, it is to be remembered that the first Olym- 
piad does not count for four years ; and so, to find the date of the fifteenth 
Olympiad, one must multiply four by fourteen, instead of by fifteen, and 
subtract the result from 776 b.c. 

2 If the pupils do not think of this, it may be well to remind them that 
all outsiders were called by the Greeks "Barbarians,'' that is, men who 
" babble/' or speak so that they cannot he understood. Tell them, too, that 
Homer was recited and sung in every city and village of Greece. 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE. 15 

Tendency to Spartan leadership seen in 

Olympic games. 

Spartan conquests. 

Lydian request for Spartan alliance. 

Revolt against oligarchy, ending in "tyranny." 

Intellectual, industrial, and artistic impulse 

seen in 

poetry (lyric). 

science (philosophy'). 

architecture and sculpture. 

working in metal, stone, clay, 
developing along the lines of Greek life and history, .*. 

original. 
encouraged by 

religion. 

the " Tyrants." 
General diffusion of excellence 

throughout Greek settlements of Asia Minor and the 

Islands, 
among all free citizens. 
Strong influence of religion seen in 
Delphic Oracle, 
games. 

art and literature, 
founding of colonies. 
Ideals of the period : 
the gentleman. 

the athlete (victor at Olympia). 
the good and honored citizen, 
the poet, singer, and thinker. 
Type of civilization, — commercial, intellectual, artistic. 

All these points might also be summarized under the head- 
ings, political, social, religious, etc., and it might be well to 
ask the students so to arrange the various points as an exercise 
in classification. 

In general, it should be strongly impressed upon the mind of 
the pupil that the bonds of Greek union during this period 
were worship and kinship ; that these bonds not only united 
them in tribes, classes, cities, and amphictyonies, but that they 



16 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

separated them from barbarians, the men of foreign speech 
and faith ; nor is it perhaps unsafe to follow Curtius in assigning 
great importance to the cohesive force exercised by the Delphic 
Oracle, which was a centre of knowledge as well as of faith. 

But no cohesive force could stand against the strength of 
local interests. It will be noted through this whole time that 
each little state, centred in its own little city, acted for itself, 
fought for itself, and founded its own colonies ; Sparta alone 
sometimes interfered in general Greek affairs, and thus asserted 
her superior strength. 

It will be readily perceived that all the tendencies and organ- 
izations of this period followed naturally from those of the 
Homeric age, with a strengthening of the commercial, relig- 
ious, and intellectual spirit. The heroes of the Trojan War 
and the Argonautic Expedition were the precursors of the 
adventurous traders and colonists ; and the men who never 
fought a battle but with the favor of the gods, the ancestors of 
those who founded their colonies by the advice of Apollo. 

B. II. 1. SPAETA, 776-490 B.C. 

Political Organization. 

In form : a limited monarchy. 

In reality : an oligarchic democracy, bound together by religion, 

kinship, and training. 
Social Organization. 

For Spartans : communistic, and entirely subordinate to the 

state and the army. 
Results of the Lykurgan Organization and Institutions. 
Political : 

Spartan leadership in Greece for that period. 
Social : 

Subordination of the individual and the family to the state. 

Importance and influence of women. 

Simplicity, and even rudeness of manners. 
Personal : 

Scorn of any labor other than military. 

High physical development, — strength and beauty. 

Spartan ideal, — the warrior, athlete, and patriot. 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GEEECE. 17 

In the above study, the phrase, " oligarchic democracy," 
tnay seem like a genuine " Irish bull," nor can I say that I at 
all approve of it, since it is only clear to one who knows what 
it means. What it does mean is this, — that, while the Spar- 
tan body within itself was as pure a working democracy as the 
world has ever seen, yet, since that body was limited in num- 
ber, and ruled over a large population of Laconians, who had 
absolutely no share in the government, it was, as regarded 
these Laconians, an oligarchy ; and throughout the Greek his- 
tory it will be seen that the Spartan spirit and the Spartan 
sympath}^ is aristocratic. Even in this period, we find her 
always opposed to the man of the people, the " Tyrant." 

B. II. 2. ATHENS, 776-490 B.C. 

Before Solon, 776-594 B.C. 

Political organization : 

Aristocracy of clan-elders (Eupatrids), distinguished from 
other tribesmen by birth and worship. 
Social organization : 

Tribal, the people bound together by kinship and wor- 
ship into 

families, forming 
, clans, in turn forming 
brotherhoods, in turn forming 
Four Ionic Tribes, political units of the City-state. 
[N.B. — Tribesmen alone form the state.] 

Changes of Solon, 594 B.C. 

In organization : 

Aristocracy of birth changed to a timocracy; that is, 
wealthy as well as high-born tribesmen admitted 
to power. 

Community of worship given to all tribesmen. 

Slavery for tribesmen abolished. 

Publicity and sacredness of common law. 
In tendency : 

Development of equality. 

Limitation of individual by the state. 

Liberation of individual from family. 



18 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Athens. — Continued. 

Recognition of value of wealth and industry. 
Encouragement of labor and trade. 
Development of unity and freedom by 

loosening of the fixed bonds of birth, 
extension of a common worship. 
The Peisistratid Tyranny (Demagogism). 

Organized according to forms of Solon's constitution. 
Based on 

local jealousies of Mountain, Plain, and Shore. ^ 
personality of Peisistratus, — 
eloquence, 
geniality, 
tact and intellect. 
ignorance, sympathy, and superstition of the multitude, 
wealth of Peisistratus. 
hired military forces. 
Justified by 

public improvements in 
roads, 
trade, 
patronage of art, science, poetry. 
Caused to fall by 

abuse of the tyrannical power, 
reaction against it. 
ambition of the Alkmgeonids. 
opposition of Delphi and Sparta. 
Changes of Kleisthenes. 

In organization (^Democracy) : 

The kinship bond abolished in politics. ^ 
The tribe of demesmen replaces that of kinsmen in politics. 
The deme, or parish, instead of the family, becomes the 
fundamental unit, its men united by a common 
residence and a common worship. 
All free inhabitants become citizens. 

1 The local jealousies, of course, were strong, because of local interests; 
to this was added, in the case of the Mountaineers, the desperation of poor 
men who have nothing to lose. 

2 In social life, of course the kinship bond always remains; and in 
Greece probably, as well as elsewhere, the "first families" had many 
things after "their way." 



STUDY OF HISTORIC GKEECE. 19 

tendency : 

Development of democracy. 
Development of unity by 

introduction of new worships, 
abolition of distinctions of birth between louians 
and Perioeki. 
General Character of Athenian History, 776-490 B.C. 

Constant changes toward equality, democracy, and unity. 
Parallelism of political, social, and religious distinctions. 
Widening distribution of political power. 
Growth of the state in size, numbers, and interests. 
Gradual liberation of individuals. 

In this, the pupil meets with his first serious study of consti- 
tutional development, and the teacher should by no means be- 
grudge the time necessary to a complete understanding of each 
stage. The student must have clearly in mind that before the 
time of Kleisthenes the four Ionic tribes form the Athenian 
state, without reference to the Metics, that the changes of 
Solon apply simply to Ionic tribesmen, and that in every 
development of the constitution the place and form of the old 
Greek bonds of union, kinship and faith, are still respected, 
though constantly enlarged and loosened, while of these two 
the common worship is the stronger and gives presumptive 
evidence of common kin. While these ideas are in reality 
simple, yet their novelty makes them at first hard to " sense," 
and time is the one element necessary to their understanding. 
Thorough work here will save time in all the following constitu- 
tional studies. 

In Peisistratus, we have a study of that interesting phenome- 
non, the "man of the people" turned "Tyrant"; the most 
important point to discuss is the relation between the Tyrant, 
the ignorant mass, and the constitutional form ; and it should 
be clearly understood that a Tyrant of this type always finds 
his counterpart in the ignorance or stupidity of his supporters, 
and that constitutional forms avail little without general intelli- 
gence to use them.^ To come no closer home, it will be well to 

1 " I hold all Rome guilty of this Nero." — Thorndale. 



20 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

cite the parallel case of Napoleon III. The full-grown Tyrant, 
however, is a political teacher, and he never appeared twice in 
the same Greek state. In Athens, he called out the institution 
of ostracism, as local party conflicts forced into the constitu- 
tion the separation of the demes of the same tribe. 

In the constitution of Kleisthenes we meet with the most 
radical constitutional change known to antiquity. Before his 
time, the men born into the same clan belonged together, no 
matter where they dwelt ; unity existed alone in faith and 
blood-relationship. But he drew neighbors together into the 
same parish, so that men who dwelt together irrespective of 
blood-relationship should be called by a common name and 
worship at a common shrine. In other words, he made the 
land, the common father-land^ the bond of unity. Though this 
was his fundamental change, he dared not ignore the old Greek 
bonds, and so gave to each of his new tribes, mixed of 
lonians and Metics, a local hero for common worship, from 
whom it took its tribal name, as if in direct descent. From 
this time on, then, we find Ionian and Ionic merged in the 
larger names of Athenian and Attic. 

Before the time of Solon the "Homeric Assembly of 
Elders " had crowded out of power both the King and the body 
of freemen ; from Solon's time power is turned more and more 
into the channels of the " agora." But throughout the consti- 
tutional development, we never lose sight of the primitive 
Homeric organization ; the magistrates replace the King, the 
Areopagus and the Senates replace the Assembly of Elders ; 
while the market-place meeting grows into a thoroughly com- 
pacted Ekklesia, with large and definite powers. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — The landing 
of the Greeks in Illyria. Journal of a Greek sailing from Athens to 
Phasis. The importance of Byzantium. Which most strongly unites 
men, religion or commerce, and why? Why is common speech a 
bond of union? In what ways were the various contemporaneous 
nations and tribes real barbarians compared with the Greeks, 77G- 
500 B.C. ? A day at Olympia. Letter of a Milesian merchant from 



STUDY ON PEESIAN WARS. 



21 



Delphi. Was the Greek Tyrant a good or an evil? (Debate.) By 
what marks would you have known yourself in a Greek state had 
you been suddenly placed in Athens, 510 b.c, not knowing the 
language? What geographical fact accounted for the political con- 
figuration of Greece and its leading business interest? How far is 
Sparta a suggestive model ? Dialogue between a Spartan and Athe- 
nian. The civilizing forces at work, 600 B.C. What would have 
been the fate of Solon and Kleisthenes respectively, had they changed 
places with each other in time, but not in principles? What lesson 
can we Americans draw from the story of Peisistratus? 



O. STUDY OK PEESIAK WARS, 490-479 B.C. 

The study on p. 72 is so exceedingly easy that it may be well 
simpl}' to make an informal conversation of it, without asking 
for any home stud}' upon it. Its results, together with those of 
studies on pp. 76, 80, 82, 85, 87, may be summarized some- 
thing as follows : — 

GENERAL COMPARISON OF ANTAGONISTS. 





Hellenic. 


Persian. 


Territory is 


maritime, colonial, scat- 


agricultural, continental, com- 




tered, with natural divi- 


pact, with arbitrary divi- 




sions. 


sions. 


Population is 


of one race, speech, and 


mixed of many races, tongues, 




faith. 


and faiths. 


Civilization is 


Occidental ; that is, diffused. 


Oriental ; that is, centralized, 
exclusive. 


Governments 


democracy and local inde- 


despotism, centralization. 


tend to 


pendence. 




Soldiers are 


citizens fighting for their 


subjects fighting to gain more 




own possessions and inde- 


wealth for their king. 




pendence. 





[N. B. — This table can only be started after the study on p. 72 ; it 
must be extended and completed by means of the study on p. 76, 
where additional points are made. At its close, the clear impression 



22 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

should be left on the mind of the pupil that the Persian empire was 
an enormous heterogeneous compound, massed together by conquerors 
as a great estate, from which to draw revenues and forces for their 
private ends ; while Greece, or Hellas, was a loose union of citizen- 
communities, bound together by common sympathies and modes of 
thought, but full of independent, individual life, each community 
existing and gathering resources for its own citizens.] 

FIRST PERSIAN WAR. 

Causes of the War. 

Desire of Darius for wealth of Naxos and Athens. 
Desire of Darius to punish Athens. 
Desire of Hippias for restoration to power. 
Independence of Athens. 

Important Events of the War. 

Ionian revolt, and Athenian alliance with it. 

Persian invasion of Greece. 

Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C., won by MUtiades. 

10,000 Greeks (Athenians) conquer 100,000 Persians. 
Retreat of Persians ; end of first war. 

Character, Relations, and Tendencies of the Hellenes, as shown 
in this War. 

General tendency to democratic governments, seen in 

Naxos. 

cities of Asia Minor. 

Athens. 
Democracies opposed by 

aristocracies (Naxos). 

tyrants (Miletus, Athens). 

Darius (Ionian revolt). 
Leadership of Sparta and Athens among the Greeks. 
Love of independence (Sparta, Athens, Asia Minor). 

Special Athenian Characteristics displayed. 
Generous sympathy with Greece. 
Unselfish patriotism (conduct of generals). 
Unshrmking courage. 

Special Spartan Character shown. 

Strict observance of law (refusal to march). 



STUDY OK PERSIAN WARS. 23 

INTERVAL FROM FIRST TO SECOND PERSIAN WARS, 

MARKED BY — 

Development of Athenian Naval Power, through 
wisdom of Themistokles. 
patriotism of the Athenians, 
natural advantages of Athenian situation. 
Persian Preparations for invading Greece 
urged on by 

Persian desire for revenge. 
Peisistratid ambition, 
marked by- 
union of great masses under single lead, 
lack of any inspiration of patriotism, 
difficulty of provisioning. 
Attempted Union of Hellenes, incomplete through 
jealousy (Syracuse, Argos). 
fear (Corcyra). 
Nobility of Athenian Spirit, shown in 

patriotism for all Hellas (Pan-Hellenism), 
generosity of Themistokles to Aristeides. 
hoping against hope, — courage in extremity. 

SECOND PERSIAN WAR. 

[Add to the table of " Comparison of Antagonists " the point of 
" Spirit," — the Hellenic spirit being that of independence, giving 
strength ; the Persian, that of servility and fear, producing weakness.] 

Causes of War (see secoud point under Interval). 
Critical Battles of the "War. 

Thermopylae (hero Leonidas). 
Salamis (hero Themistokles). 
Platsea and Mykale. 
Character displayed in this War, by — 
Spartans under Leonidas : 
Dogged courage. 

Absolute obedience to law, and regard for religion. 
Individual independence of a leader. 
Spartans in the fleet : 

Caution and selfishness. 



24 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 

Second Persian War. — Continued. 

Athenians (including Themistokles and Aristeides) : 

Regard for the gods. 

Good judgment (statesmanship). 

Strategy (Themistokles). 

Unselfish patriotism (Aristeides, Plataea). 

Pan-Hellenic interest, 
Greeks in general : 

Regard for the gods. 

Love of independence. 

Tendencies to local and party jealousies. 

Regard for Sparta and Athens as leaders. 

Consciously united by 
religion (Delphi)* 
speech, 
blood. 

Led by persuasion. 
Persian hosts : 

Cowardice. 

Dependence on leaders and on Jear (scourge). 

In the previous studies, we have seen the development of the 
Spartan and Athenian constitutions into their completed forms ; 
in the Persian wars, we see these completed forms at work, 
acting in large and various circumstances. Up to this point, the 
aim of our work has been thoroughly to understand forms ; now 
it must be thoroughly to feel the spirit, the life which animates 
them ; furthermore, to note how far the}^ meet, and when they 
fail to meet the needs of the hour. Perhaps beyond all else, it 
should be noted that both Athenian and Spartan constitutions 
were good primarily because they were worked, by a mass in- 
deed, but by a mass composed of intelligent, self-reliant, patriotic 
individuals. We admire the heroism of the Spartans at Thermo- 
P3'l8e, the patriotism of the Athenians in voting that their pub- 
lic moneys should be expended in a fleet, and again and again 
we marvel at the excellent judgment and courage shown in the 
decisions of the Greek assemblies ; but we must alwaj's remind 
the pupil that while the free constitution called forth the powers 
of the citizen, the intelligence of the citizen gave the free con- 



STUDY OK PEESIAN WARS. 25 

stitution power. To enforce the point, let the student but once 
imagine that the Athenian Ekklesia was composed of ignorant, 
selfish men, man}^ of them resident in Attica only for a year 
or two, and he will see at once that under such circumstances, 
the free constitution, acting in a time of war and danger, when 
the state demands the highest courage and the greatest sacri- 
fices, may become a source of positive injury. Further, let him 
note that when the Kleistheneau arrangement of Strategi was 
tested for the first time at Marathon, this part of the constitu- 
tion would have failed entirely" had it not been for the generosity 
of Aristeides and his companions, joined to the wisdom and 
daring of Miltiades. Again, the advantage which the ostracism 
gave, in uniting the forces of the state under a single lead, 
depended for its value on the good sense of each Athenian 
citizen and his readiness to submit to law. Other instances will 
be seen throughout the period. In short, the working power 
of the Greek constitutions depended on the fact that they were 
worked by men, quick-witted, generous-hearted ; every unit 
counted one. Throughout the stud}'' it must be kept in mind 
that the whole theory of Greek political life was, that persua- 
sion^ the moving of men's thoughts and feelings by reasons and 
motives, is the only legitimate force by which either men or 
measures are lifted into leadership. 

Although during the Persian wars, the individualitj' of the 
various states stood strongly forth in distinct and local colors, 
3^et it is to this period that we owe the first appearance of that 
political form so interesting to all Americans, — the union of 
independent states Wn- concerted action in affairs of common 
interest. The Amplilctyonies were religious in their motive, 
and the old Homeric league of chiefs in the Trojan war was 
perhaps too unconscious and informal to be reckoned as politi- 
cal. But during the Persian wars, we find the Greek states, 
under the urging power of Athens, striving, though weakly and 
with ill-success, to form a true Pan-Hellenic union against the 
Barbarian. The want of centralization must have been strongly 
felt when fighting against a foe, whose greatest strength lay in 



26 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

his ability to handle masses simply and easily from an absolute, 
though despotic centre. The value of this power of centralized 
force in time of war should be as thoroughly understood as cir- 
cumstances permit, and receives fine illustrations from the risks 
which the Greeks ran from disunion in the second Persian war, 
notably at Salamis. In this power lies the strength of despot- 
isms ; in its lack, the weakness of free governments, unless for 
a time they know how to subject and consolidate themselves 
under a single will. It is interesting to note, also, in this con- 
nection, that Delphi became a more thoroughly acknowledged 
centre of Greek affairs, and in some cases was even recog- 
nized as able to hold the various states responsible for a com- 
mon agreement. 

At the close of the whole study on the Persian wars it will 
be well to call attention to the fact that the great deeds, that 
the great results of this period, were due entirely to moral and 
intellectual forces ; that the disastrous and complete defeat 
suffered by the Greeks at Thermopylae became through its 
moral grandeur, not only a glory but an inspiration ; and that 
the one state in Greece which displayed these qualities in the 
highest degree, namely Athens, not only deserved the leader- 
ship of the Hellenes, but obtained it. 

The geographical advantages of Thermopylae and Salamis are 
in reality the same, since on the one hand the narrowness of the 
mountain-pass, and on the other, the narrowness of the straits, 
enabled a few brave men to keep at bay a multitude, whom they 
could only encounter a few at a time. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — It has always 
been my habit, in reaching this point in the work, to give the pupils a 
chance to try their own hand at the making of a tabulated summary. 
According to the ability and experience of the class, they can either 
be allowed to make it without any help or suggestion on the part of 
the teacher, or the principal headings may be dictated to them to fill 
out. In either case, the teacher should be exceedingly careful not to 
hold his students to any rigid form, but to allow as wide differences 
of arran,i;-enieiit as the "logic of events" allows. The following topics 
and quetsLions are suggestive: — 



STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 27 

What changes did the Persian wars produce in liellas ? Were they 
a good or an evil? Was Aristeides or Themistokles the better 
citizen ? (Debate.) The military strength of goodness, as illustrated 
in these wars. Why is courage a cardinal virtue ? Persian. Greece. 
The citizen v. the subject. The comparative influence of the aims of 
glory and wealth on character. The story of a soldier at Marathon ; 
at Thermopylae, "I perceive that, in all things, ye are too super- 
stitious." Journal of an Athenian citizen, 480-479 B.C. Why should 
the Greeks call ^^ Persuasion " a goddess? The Greek victory at 
Thermopylae. 



D. STUDY OJ^ THE ATHENIAlf LEADEESHIP; AGE OP 
PEEIKLES; 479-431. 

In dealing with the age of Perikles, it is generally too much 
ignored that we are studying, after all, the development of 
Athens alone ; and while for the time being it seems to concen- 
trate all Hellenic history within its own walls, yet it is but a 
single citj' among the Greeks. Hence, in the following tabula- 
tion, it has seemed best to emphasize this fact by considering 
Hellas in general, as well as Athens. No part of this summary 
should be given until all the work on the Athenian Leadership 
has been discussed ; and if the students have sufficient ability, it 
may be well here also to ask them to tabulate their own results. 

THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP; AGE OF PERIKLES. 

Organization of 

Hellas in general : 

Local self-governing cities, with attempts at Hellenic union 
in Confederacy of Delos (maritime dominion). 
in Spartan leadership (continental dominion) . 
Athens : 

Completed democracy at home, Mdth tendencies to dema- 
gog! sm. 

Imperialism abroad, under lead of 
Kim on. 
Perikles. 



28 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 

The Athenian Leadership. — Continued. 
Characteristics of Period in 

Hellas in general : 

Party strife within cities. 

Aristocrats favored by Sparta. 

Democrats favored by Athens. 
Jealousy of cities, notably of Athens, leading to 

Peloponnesian War. 
Development of Athenian leadership by 

superior naval force. 

Pan-Hellenic spirit. 

literary and artistic supremacy. 
Development of Athenian empire by 

neoiect and indifference of allies. 

Athenian ambition and strength. 
Athens : 

Development of trade and wealth. 

Development of arts, in original (Greek) directions. 

Sculpture ) Parthenon. 
Architecture ) 
Drama, — 

iEschylus. 
Sophokles. 
Euripides. 
General intelligence and patriotism shown in 
use of public money (Parthenon), 
character of drama and popular amusements, 
leading men of the state, — 
Aristeides. 
Kimon. 
Per ikies. 
Development of philosophy, — natural science, mental 

and moral philosophy, theology. 
Growth and influence of oratory. 
Ideals, — statesman and general, poet, philosopher, orator, 

good citizen ; or 
Ideal character, — cultured, brave, genial, patriotic, 

eloquent. 
Production of great men, — Perikles, Sokrates, Aris- 
teides, etc. 



STUDY OX THl-: ATHENIAN LEADEBSHIP. 29 

Existence of religious parties, — 

Liberal thinkers (Sokrates) . 

Orthodox Greeks (his prosecutors) ; or 
Growth of free thought, endangering the state, — ' 

Trial of Sokrates. 

The instant the Persian wars are over, we find that the Hel- 
lenic world has widened, that its movements are larger, its 
wars and alliances farther-reaching than before. This is seen 
at once in the feeling that Sestos and Byzantium are keys to the 
Greek world, and as such should be so held by Greeks as to 
prevent any repetition of the invasions of Darius and Xerxes. 
But it is seen most largely in the fact that from this time on, 
the Greek cities tend to appear in groups, under the lead of one 
or another. During this period, of course, it was the Athenian 
group that led ; in the beginning, the Confederacy of Delos was a 
free league of the older Greek t3^pe, in which Athens was simply 
the first among equals ; but a most noteworthy change soon oc- 
curred, in that the chief bond of union became that of a common 
interest. Again, this league was formed, not to meet a si3ecial 
crisis, but to carry out a settled purpose of conscious Hellenic 
union ; from this point of view, it was necessary that the members 
should be held responsible to some single member, or some cen- 
tral bod}^ Hence, after the treasury was transferred to Athens, 
and the allies gradually allowed themselves to pa}^ a money-tax, 
instead of performing active personal duties, we find them be- 
coming uneasy, and the stress of present danger over, Athens 
was compelled to hold them together b}' main force. Hence the 
Greek world became undermined by partj' strife, mutual jeal- 
ousy, and dishke, until the " logic of events " drove the states 
upon the Peloponnesian War. Yet, while the Confederacy of 
Delos failed of achieving a Greek political union, it must not 
be forgotten that it proved effective for the time being, in 
making the ^gean thoroughly Greek throughout its coasts and 
islands. Nor must it be forgotten that Athens, at this time 
purely democratic, and under the most democratic leaders, was 
able to carry out a foreign policy as energetic and decisive as 



30 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

any despot. Onl}'' to the mind of Perikles does it seem to have 
occurred that it might be possible to appl}^ the representative 
principle to Greek affairs in general, and so to form a demo- 
cratic union of states as well as one of citizens. 

"While the list of great men and works shows very positively 
that Athens was the intellectual centre of Hellas, and that the 
Greek genius culminated in her free citizens, it also shows that 
the whole Greek world was pervaded by the same intellectual 
and artistic impulses ; and that these impulses always played 
about Greek forms and themes, so that the Greek history, 
mythology, and life, became the inspiration of the Greek art. 

Not only does a state express its own peculiar genius by 
original works of art, but also in living characters. Thus 
Leonidas and Themistokles were as distinctively products of 
Greek life, as the Venus of Melos or the Parthenon. In Athe- 
nian history many such type-characters have been preserved for 
us with all the freshness of their living deeds and words ; and of 
these, two predominate, — Perikles and Sokrates. Perikles is, 
however, more typically Athenian, having the versatility which 
enabled him to be at once general, admiral, orator, statesman, 
scholar, artist, and gentleman. This versatility was rendered 
effective by a persistent will, a diligent use of time, and an 
upright character. His mode of life and habits of thought, his 
tastes and desires, were all Athenian, and thus he was chosen, 
year after year, as its representative man by the Athenian 
Ekklesia. He had moderation, wit, spirit, and, above all, 
that spherical development of the whole man, which he himself 
described (p. 106) as typically Athenian. If desired, the 
teacher may make some such tabulation as follows for the 
facts concerning Perikles : — 

Advantages of Perikles for Leadership. 

Honorable birth. 

Athenian training. 

Dignity of manner. 

Versatile tastes. 

Intellectual and oratorical talent. 



STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADEKSHIP. 81 

Noble character, — 
upright, 
economical, 
firm. 

religious, without superstition, 
patriotic, public-spirited, 
merciful, kind. 

Means used by Perikles to acquire Leadership. 
Improvements Wrought by Perikles, 

Although Socrates did not, like Perikles, gather up in his 
own person all the tendencies and influences of the Athenian 
history and culture, still he represents the culmination of one 
set of these tendencies and influences, and probably could not 
have lived and worked S3'mpathetically with so large and enthu- 
siastic a following at any other time or place. The long course 
of Greek thought, which had dealt from the time of Homer 
with the larger problems of the destiny of man, the nature of 
the Deity, and the relation of each to the other and the exter- 
nal world, produced its consummate flower in the words and 
character of Sokrates. Sokrates may fairl}' be called a Pagan 
Christian, since we find in him not only the belief in a Deity 
who rules our lives, who can be reached by prayer, and who 
rewards the good and punishes the evil-doer, but also in him 
we find the hope of immortality, and, above all, the clear per- 
ception that the highest and most worthy life of man is spir- 
itual, and that purity, truth, and obedience to the gods are the 
noblest aims of existence. This being the teaching of Sokrates, 
it has often seemed strange that he should have been deemed 
worthy of death by the Athenians. But, if we have hitherto 
interpreted Greek history aright, the pupil will readity see that, 
in the Athenian state, religious unity was essential to political, 
and that any freedom of thought which would tend to free men 
from allegiance to that oldest and strongest of Greek political 
bonds, the tribal and national faith, must seem fatal if he firm- 
ness of the state. Here we have a grave political reason, 
which must have seemed plausible to the Athenians of that 



32 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

day, for the condemnation of Sokrates ; the more plausible, 
since the number of his sympathizers, judging from the votes 
cast, must have included a very large minority of the Athenian 
citizens. 

It may be said that this study of Sokrates is misplaced, 
since, in point of time, he belongs in the period of the Pelo- 
ponnesian War. This fact caused me to hesitate before placing 
him with the men of the age of Perikles ; but, on the whole, he 
seemed properly to belong with that great group, each of which 
represents the culmination of a long " stream of tendency." 
For a similar reason, though more doubtfully applied, the 
extracts from Aristophanes are placed among those illustrative 
of this age. 

The extracts from the dramatists, taken in connection with 
the trial of Sokrates and the life of Perikles, indicate that, in 
the refined Athens of that age, there w^ere three distinct trends 
of religious thought : tliat of orthodoxy, or the holding b}' the 
material myth and the material faith ; that of skepticism or 
doubt ; and that of philosophic theology, personified in Sokra- 
tes. That the third of these tendencies was regarded as more 
dangerous than the second may be easily explained by the 
fact that a positive, earnest belief has a strength which mere 
doubt can never possess. 

I am sorry that the necessarj' limit set at present to the 
expense of a text-book has made it impossible to illustrate 
more fully or perfectly the culmination of Greek art into sculp- 
ture and architecture. But with the specimens given, it may 
be noted that its products were simple, natural, well-propor- 
tioned and harmonious, full of living repose. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — The great- 
ness of Perikles. The greatness of Sokrates. What can the Parthenon 
tell us of Athens? The Periklean v. the American. Indifference a 
political vice in a republic. The education of the Ekklesia. "In- 
spiration comes only to the disciplined " ; illustrate from Athenian 
history and biography. The imperfections of the Athenian democracy. 
The political value of morality, illustrated from Athenian history and 



STUDY ON PERIOD 431-338. 33 

biography. The visit of an Egyptian to Athens under Perikles. 
Perikles v. Peisistratus. 



E. F. STUDY ON PEEIOD 431-338. 

The studies on pp. 115, 117, and 118 may be summarized as 
follows : — 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR, AND FALL OF GREECE BEFORE 

MACEDON. 

Characteristics of Period. 

Dependence of individual states on foreign aid. 
Persia. 
Macedon. 
Succession of Hellenic leaderships, or leagues, under 

Athens, — caused by naval and intellectual superiority. 
Sparta, — caused by superior military strength and foreign 

aid. 
Thebes, — caused by native patriotism and culture. 
Macedon, — caused by royal ambition, interference in 
Greek affairs, diplomacy. 
Mutual jealousies and constant wars. 
Gradual weakening of important states through 
lack of union (fault in organization), 
lack of Hellenic patriotism and local unselfishness (fault 
in spirit). 
General Characteristics of Hellenic History. 

Local individual development from common Homeric basis : 

Of constitutions, into tyrannies, democracies, aristocracies. 
Of ideals, into statesmen, generals, poets, artists, philoso- 
phers. 
Of religion, into Socratic philosophy, popular superstition. 

The opening of the Peloponnesian War shows us the Greek 
world in all its relations within and without : two strong groups 
of states within, engaged in a long-tlireatened conflict, and repre- 
senting the opposing principles of aristocracy nnd deinocracj' as 
embodied in their leading cities ; these cities gradually- weakened 



84 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 

and deserted by their allies, the strength of their respective con- 
federacies broken, and passing, in some measure, to Thebes ; 
meanwhile, the relation toward the barbarian had so far changed 
that Persia was enabled to interfere very effectively in Greek 
affairs, the Greek bitterness towards her being very mate- 
rially softened. The Persian sympathy was naturally at first 
against Athens, who had proved her most dangerous and 
persistent foe in the Persian wars ; but when Athens was 
weakened, the Asiatics attacked Sparta, and tlie whole Greek 
world was undermined by mutual jealousy and foreign intrigue. 
Philip of Macedon, tlierefore, found it comparatively easy to 
follow the lead of Persia, and to develop still further that 
policy of aiding one Greek state against another to the mutual 
injurv or ruin of both, while he himself held all his forces 
in his single hand, to obey his single wdll. If Athens had 
had the spirit to follow the lead of Demosthenes, and Greece 
the spirit to follow the one lead of Athens ; or if, in the 
preceding generation, Perikles had been able to form that 
Hellenic Union, which the best Athenians desired, then Greece 
might have become the leading power of the Eastern Mediter- 
ranean. But the maritime power of Athens had been thoroughly 
broken at ^gospotami, and with it her power of holding her 
old allies ; the influence of Persian gold was strong in Sparta 
and the smaller Grecian states ; neither the spirit nor the 
organization existed capable of resisting such a power as 
Philip possessed. For Philip possessed not onh' material 
powers, such as Persia held ; but b}^ becoming a Greek unto 
the Greeks, he was able to disguise their national subjection 
under national sympathies and forms. His wars were Greek 
wars, in which he led Greek against Greek, and even at the 
fatal day of Chteroneia, it was as an elected general of Greek 
forces that he subdued the last independent cities ; and when 
he called a Hellenic congress at Corinth, and was chosen cap- 
tain-general of Hellenic forces against the Asiatic, there must 
have been many of the Greeks who believed that their race was 
just about to enter on a still greater career. 



STUDY ON PEEIOD 431-338. 35 

From the siege of Troy to the day of Chseroneia, the course 
of Greek history is clearly evokitional and singularly free from 
outside influence. In politics, from first to last, the constant 
tendency to Hellenic union is overborne by the stronger ten- 
dency to local independence. This latter tendency, of course, 
had its advantage, in that it gave each local character opportu- 
nity to develop itself completely and distinctly. Each Homeric 
ideal culminates in the fifth century B.C.; — Achilles into the 
Spartan warrior ideal ; Ulysses into the Athenian who is at 
once general and statesman ; the bard has grown through gen- 
erations to the full stature of the Athenian dramatists. That 
these types tended to culminate so variously in Athens is to be 
attributed, perhaps, mainly to two facts : one, her free trading 
and commercial life, which took her citizens to and fro through 
the contemporaneous world, quickening their minds with new 
ideas enlarging their hearts with new sympathies ; the other, 
her free constitution, w^hich educated every man to hear, to 
think, to decide in regard to matters of larger import than the 
petty round of mereh' individual life can furnish. 

Suggestions for Dictation and Examination. — Illustrate from 
Greek history the saying, " He who will save his life shall lose it." 
The military value of unselfishness. We say now-a-days, "The pen 
is mightier than the sword"; what would an Athenian have said 
instead, and how might he have illustrated it? When did the fall of 
Greece begin, and how? Why should Athenians be quicker to seize 
opportunity than the Spartans ? Why should they be more patriotic 
than Persians? Than other Greeks? Why should they be more 
interested in Greece as a whole than other Greeks were? What had 
made the Athenians, as a w^hole, politically acute ? Demosthenes i?. 
Philip. The real causes of the Peloponnesian War. Its results and 
effects. Letters of an Athenian to a Milesian, 405-338. The Spartan 
V. the Athenian spirit. Influence of the Greek ideas and ideals in our 
own time. 



36 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

THE HELLENISTIC OR ALEXANDRIAN CON- 
QUESTS AND KINGDOMS, 338-146 B.C. 

The general results of the work on pp. 119-127 may be sum- 
marized as follows : — 

■■9 

THE HELLENISTIC OR ALEXANDRIAN CONQUESTS AND 

KINGDOMS. 
Organizations formed. 

Military monarchies or despotisms, supported by standing armies. 
Results of Conquests and the Foundation of the Nevsr King- 
doms. 

Development of trade. 

New trade-routes oj^ened to the East : 
Canal from Nile to Red Sea. 
Trading posts in Indian Ocean. 
Foundation of new trade-centres : 
Alexandria. 
Antioch. 

Seleukia (near Babylon). 
Pergamos. 
Development of art, science, and literature, in new directions, 
with Alexandria, Antioch, and Pergamos, as centres. 
Natural science, especially 
medicine, 
astronomy, 
physics. 
Poetry, — pastoral and elegiac. 
Drama, — new comedy. 
Spread of Greek language, in Egypt, Macedon, Syria, Asia 
Minor, and eastward toward India. 

Character of Civilization (Hellenistic) affected by previous Egyp- 
tian and Oriental culture. 

Dependent on courts for development and support. 
Practical in its tendencies, seen in 
new schools of ethics, — 
Epicm^eanism. 
Stoicism. 



ALEXANDRIAN CONQUESTS AND KINGDOMS. 37 

new forms of literature, — 

new comedy. 

pastoral and 7 , 

elegiac ) 

new directions of thought, — . 

scientific. 

It should be distinctly felt that'the conquests of Alexander 
owe their importance to the fact that they were the conquests 
of Hellenism ; by Hellenism, meaning the spirit of Hellenic 
culture, rather than its body. For it will be seen that the 
Alexandrian art, poetry, thought, and activity, ran after all in 
new channels, determined by the contact of the versatile Hel- 
lenic mind with new circumstances and with old, firmly-fixed 
civilizations, fitted rather to give than receive impressions. 
The spirit of local patriotism yielded to the cosmopolitanism of 
an empire ; and the seriousness of Sokrates, JEschylus, and 
Aristophanes, changed to the practical observations and ethics 
of men of the world. That Alexander felt and made him- 
self the representative of the Greek world is clear enough ; 
chosen general-in-chief of Greek forces bj' a congress of Hel- 
lenic states, sanctioned b}^ Delphi, sacrificing to the Greek 
deities, dedicating his spoils to the Athena of the Acropolis, 
and establishing Greek political forms in the cities he founded 
and conquered, the pupil of Aristotle and the lover of Homer 
seemed to be Greek in all but name.^ That the Greeks 
themselves were uneas}' under the Alexandrian rule militates 
not in the least against this view, since throughout their organ- 
ization and history, their little city-states were always uneasy 
under any attempt at centralization, whether native or foreign ; 
and during this very period, we find their most hopeful attempts 
at political union, the Greek leagues, — the famous forerun- 
ners of modern confederacies such as are our United States, — 
marred by their partial character ; while all the attempts to regain 

1 It is interesting to note in this connection the modern Greek claim to 
the old Macedonian land, as a just part of the Greek territory. 



38 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

independence are too local to have the least worth. In fact, 
the whole Greek history is an illustration of particularism^ a 
term which the teacher may do well to introduce as the antithe- 
sis of centralization. 

It will be noted in the progressive history of the Aryan world 
that states and empires increase in size ; thus, the Alexandrian 
empire exceeds the Persian in this respect, and is itself exceeded 
by the Roman. This Alexandrian empire illustrates, too, both 
in its conquests and its foundations, the fact that the ancient 
world was held and characterized by its great metropolitan 
centres of wealth, population, and art. It was not the desire 
of land that drew Alexander eastward with his Greeks ; the 
heaped-up splendors of Tjtc and Sidon, of Jerusalem and 
Damascus, of Memphis and Babylon, were richer boot}' than 
the rough North and West could offer, and their possession meant 
the absolute possession of all their subject lands ; since with- 
out their walls was neither wealth, nor will, nor leadership for 
resistance ; the laud was but their great dumb feeder. So to 
establish his own power permanently, Alexander felt that he 
must found cities, that should stamp and rule all the surround- 
ing land and folk ; hence, the noble foundations of Alexandria, 
Antioch, Pergamos, Kandahar, Smyrna, enduring, living monu- 
ments of Hellenistic sagacity and power. But from this very 
fact of strong and widel}^ separated centres, the Alexandrian 
empire, though continuous in territory and with the same gov- 
erning people, could not hold together. The interests of each 
centre were too strong and too strongly supported by old his- 
toric divisions of language, faith, and spirit, to allow of any- 
thing more than the most fleeting union. Of these new foun- 
dations, Alexandria is justly considered greatest, since it com- 
manded the commerce of the Nile, and all the caravan routes 
of Southern Asia. In our own times, it has gained a new 
importance by the opening of the Suez Canal. 

Since Alexander is of the small number whom all men call 
" Great," it will be wise for the teacher to dwell on the force 
of the adjective as here applied ; of course Alexander's work 



ROME, 753 (?) B.C. - 800 A.D. 39 

was great since it effected the union of the Greek and Orient 
worlds ; but that the man iiimself was great is shown by the 
very facts of his eastward march ; by the net of conquest which 
he drew about Asia Minor, by securing all the strong cities of 
her coasts, thus holding the outlets and inlets of the country ; 
by the courage and perseverance with which he pushed across 
hostile, desert, and unknown lands, to discover what and where 
the wonderland of India was ; by the unbroken daring with 
which, in the face of mutiny, he built a fleet in order to send 
Nearchus back a new wa}' ; by the boundless energy and wis- 
dom with which he dotted his march with towns. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — Was Alex- 
ander the Conqueror or the Representative of the Greeks ? (Debate.) 
Journal of a Greek soldier in the Alexandrian army. Letter of a dis- 
contented Macedonian soldier from an Indian encampment. The 
debt of civilization to the Alexandrian despots. Alexander compared 
with Xerxes. The advantages and disadvantages of individualism as 
illustrated by Greek history. Compare the Greek invasion of Asia 
with tlie Asiatic invasion of Greece. The influence of the Orient on 
Greek thought and action in Alexandrian times. 



ROME, 753 (?) B.C. -800 A.D. 

The answers to the questions on p. 130 may be summarized 
as follows : — 

ITALY. 

Geographic Character and Position. 

Large, fertile plains, with easy, natural separations : 

Valley of the Po. 

Plains eastward of the Apennines. 

Plains of Campania. 
Variety of soil and production. 
Protection from invasion by 

Alps. 

Seas. 



40 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Italy. — Continued. 

Central position in Mediterranean, commanding commerce of 

Spain, the Rhone valley, the African coasts, and all 

eastern commerce passing by it westward.^ 
Nearest civilized neighbors at 776 B.C. : 

Carthage (Phoenician). 

Greece. 
Race Distribution, determined by mountain barriers and rivers 
basins. 

Kelts, in Po valley. 

Italians and Etruscans, in centre. 

Latins, centred about Rome. 

Samnites, in mountains. 

Etruscans, in Tuscan plain. 
Greeks, in south and in Sicily. 

Results of Geographic Character and Position of Italy. 

Natural political divisions larger than in Greece. 
Beginning of civilization later than in Greece. 
Natural occupation and support, — 

agriculture and commerce. 
Sources of foreign civilization, — 

Greek and Phoenician. 

Special Advantages of Rome. 

Central position in Italy. 
Commands the Tiber water-way. 
Unites seven hill-fortresses. 
In the midst of a fertile plain. 

While the geographical advantages and peculiarities of Italy 
should be clearly appreciated, too much stress must not be laid 
upon them, since all history teaches that while geography is a 
great primary factor in starting a people, it soon becomes over- 
laid and involved with many other factors as powerfid, so that, 
in time, it loses much of its influence. 

1 Of course this command would only come with the mastery of Italy 
and Sicily by a single power; this acquired, Italy is easily mistress of all 
the Mediterranean commerce passing her eastward or westward, by virtue 
of the narrow seas between herself and Africa. 



STUDY ON EEGAL HOME. 41 

A. B. I. STUDY ON EEGAL EOME AND PEZE-PUNIO 

EEPUBLIO. 

The studies, pp. 130-151 inclusive, may be summarized some- 
what as follows : — 

EEGAL AND PR^-PUNIC REPUBLICAN ROME. 

Organizations of the Period -within (Roman). 

Patrician monarchy. 

Power centred in a king, limited by a body of patricians, 

bound together by hirth and worshi]), 753(?)-510(?) B.C. 

Patrician aristocratic republic, 510 (?) B.C. 

Developed by patrician revolt against the oppression of 

royalty in 

concentrating power. 

in use of public money. 

imposition of public burdens. 

Based on bonds of kinship and religion. 

Characterized by 

concentration of power in hands of senate. 

division of royal power among magistrates. 

Patricio-plebeian republic, 264 b.c. 

Developed by party strife of patricians and plebeians, 

caused by 

social and 1 ^ j- .- .- 

y class distmctions. 
political > 

harsh debt-laws. 

unjust distribution of land. 

strengthened by 

military power of plebeians. 

traditional and organized rule of patricians. 

neutralized by 

common interest and needs in 

defence and 

conquest. 

Based on bonds of common interest and residence. 

Rigid social classes (patricians, plebeians) 

formed by distinctions of birth and worship. 

distinguished by exclusive patrician privileges. 



42 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTORY. 

Regal and Pr^-Punic Republican Rome. — Continued. 

composed of patriarchal families, forming clans and 
tribes, as with the Greeks. 
Organizations of Period without (Italian). 

The Roman military and agricultural colony. 
The Latin league. 
The Italian allied towns. 
Developments and Tendencies of People and Time. 
Democracy. 

Equal distribution of political power. 
Social equality. 
Political parties. 

Patricians v. plebeians. 

Rich V. poor (compare with aristocrats and democrats, 
the Eupatrids and the "Many" of the Greek 
cities). 
Constant and consolidated growth of dominion. 
Caused by 

order of conquest, — 

Latium, Etruria. 
Samnium. 
South Italy, 
mixture of Romans and Italians in 
residence, 
religion. 

government and law. 
superiority of Rome to neighboring peoples in 
defences, 
position, 
organization. 
Resulting in uniting Italy in 
language (Latin), 
law, habits, religion. 
Introduction of foreign culture (from Greece and Phoenicia). 
Original development in 
architecture, — 

arch, 
government, — 

constitution of Rome, 
management of conquests. 



STUDY ON REGAL ROME. 43 

Characteristics of Period, 

Close union of politics and religion (church and state). 
Polytheistic faith. 
Utilitarianism, seen in 

religion. 

public works. 

attitude towards art and literature. 
Domination of individual by state. 
Strict regard for form and order, seen in 

politics. 

religion. 
Patrician dignity, pride, patriotism. 
Severity and simplicity, seen in 

law. 

manners. 

style of life, — 

agricultural, 
military. 
Ideals of period, — 

warrior. 

law-giver. 

farmer. 

Just here, in the study of the Roman constitutions, the teacher 
will find the advantage of having taken time for the thorough 
understanding of the constitutional development of Athens ; if 
this has been mastered, he will find that the work on the develop- 
ment of the Roman constitution may be made little more than 
a quick review and application of what the pupil already knows. 
For, although more complex and extended, the constitutions 
of Rome are, after all, of the antique type, and follow from 
stage to stage the antique development. As in the Athenian, 
so in the Roman state, these marked revolutions occur. Within 
an original society, composed of the king and his tribal nobles, 
known as Eupatrids or Patricians ("the well-born," the 
" fathers"), the oppressions of the king, and the power of the 
nobles, result in the overthrow of monarchy, nnd the establish- 
ment of a state, exclusive and aristocratic to the outside world, 



44 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

but within itself pervaded with political and social equalit}'. 
This aristocratic republic, in turn attacked by those without its 
pale of birth and worship, is compelled little by little to jdeld 
a place and name in the state, to the real powers of wealth, 
labor, plebeian numbers and fighting value, until at last, a final 
stage is reached by the constitutions of Kleisthenes, and the 
Patricio-Plebeian Republic, in which all dwellers in the state 
are citizens endowed, by law at least, with equal powers and 
rights. 

While this is the general course of the development of the 
ancient state, attention should be called to more detailed com- 
parisons ; as that the Roman curies correspond to the old Ionic 
tribes of the time of Solon ; that the centuries are divided like 
the Solonian tribes according to wealth ; while the tribes of 264 
B.C. are the Roman equivalent for the tribes of Kleisthenes ; 
again, the division of the people into adverse parties on account 
of distinctions of birth and wealth, and oppressive laws of debt, 
is duplicated from the Hellenic cities. It is well, also, to allow 
the pupil to foretell the probable changes in the Roman state 
from Greek analogies as well as from the actual Roman condi- 
tions ; thus, he should be able to foresee from both points of 
view, that the first revolution will result in the transference of 
power from the king to the nobles. Here too, as strictly* as 
in Sparta, the military organization was identical with the politi- 
cal ; a fact which enabled the evidently large plebeian popula- 
tion of Rome to win its way into the state as its necessary 
defenders.! This hold which the plebeians had upon the patri- 
cians is well illustrated by the story from Livy on p. 136, which 
admirably shows the temper of either party, — the plebeian 
impatience of patrician lordship, the patrician fear of plebeian 
desertion, — while we see both impatience and fear first yield- 

1 This is by no mcang a necessary relation, except in states of the mih- 
tary type ; in industrial communities, workers are worth as much as sol- 
diers to the state. 



STUDY ON REGAL ROME. 45 

ing before the pressing need of defending their common city, 
and then cuhniuating in tlie affair of the Sacred Mount, by 
which the fixed determination of the plebeians gained a place in 
the magistracy of the city, in spite of the obstinate tenacity of 
the nobles. 

The characteristic features in the growth of Rome's dominion 
are best seen in contrast with the imperial growth of Athens ; 
Athens stands as a single city among equals who consent to 
follow her leadership ; the one word that expresses the power 
and character of Roman rule is unity ; Rome peoples her sub- 
ject lands with her citizens ; her colonies are no commercial 
outposts of traders who always remember they are Greeks 
among barbarians ; they are communities of soldier-farmers, 
who seize and settle the land, become " sons of the soil," and 
little by little force upon the people their own standards of law 
and faith and speech, through the power of their fixed and 
dominant relation. 

After the studies on the constitution and the dominion of 
Rome, the pupils are fairly ready to understand the historical 
force of the words " growth" and " development" ; the former 
applying exactly- to the increase in size of the state, while the 
latter describes the unfolding of its various parts or organs to 
their complete relations and force. 

In studying the life, the art, the works of Rome, it is appar- 
ent that whatever is of use in the house or the farm, in the 
camp or the forum, is accepted and admired, and that any 
superfluous thing is rejected as effeminate ; in their assemblies, 
men are expected to vote independently and decisively, without 
listening to discussions or speeches which might sway their 
minds ; the native art hardly goes further than to commemorate 
a great deed by a tablet, or a great man by an attempt at a 
portrait-statue, or to build a mighty wall against invasion ; hence, 
so far as it goes, that art has the mere stamp of simplicity and 
effective strength. Even in their faith, the gods are evidently 
regarded first of all as powers* whose favor it is well to gain by 



46 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOEY. 

prayer and sacrifice and festival, because they can give plenti- 
ful harvests and abundant victory ; the deities, like the folk, 
live and move and have their being in the visible workiug circle 
of the hearth, the field, the tent, the forge. 

Better than anything else, the Twelve Tables reflect the 
temper of that eaiiy Roman polity ; absolute justice and equal- 
ity among citizens ; protection for the very slave of Rome ; but 
for the outsider, the " foreigner," no law, no recognition ; even 
for the citizen, no escape from the rigors of the harshest pen- 
alty ; the state dominates all ; here, as in a mirror, we see the 
stern, harsh life of the warlike, superstitious, exclusive, strong- 
handed city. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — Geographic 
influence on Roman character. Comparison of Roman and Athenian 
environnient ; same of development. Roman character as seen in 
Roman faith. Speech of a plebeian to his fellows on the Sacred 
Mount. Visit of an Athenian to Rome about 400 B.C. Same of a 
Spartan. The gods of Greece versus the gods of Rome. How far 
was Rome a civilized state at 264 B.C.? Perikles and Cincinnatus. 
What was the use of a dictator to Rome ? 



B, II. STUDY ON REPUBLICAN ROME, PUNIO PERIOD. 

In the study on the Punic period the military type of state 
is brought sharply into contrast with the commercial type ; this 
one fact marks the difference, — Rome conquers her neighbors, 
while Carthage pays them tribute. This by no means sa^'s that 
the Romans were the braver folk, but simply that their living 
was partly dependent on war, and the gains of war, while for 
theirs, the Carthaginians demanded leisure, and friendly rela- 
tions with as many peoples as possible. 

The studies on pp. 153, 155, 158, 1G2, 164, 166, 169, may 
be summarized something as folfows : — 



STUDY ON REPUBLICAN EOME. 



47 



PUNIC PERIOD, 264-146 B.C. — ROME AGAINST CARTHAGE. 
Comparative View of Antagonists, 264 B.C. 





Rome. 


Carthage. 


Territory : 


Continental, — 


Italy, 


Maritime ; colonial,— Sicily, 




south of Apennines. 


African and west Medi- 








terranean coasts, Spain 








(Cadiz), Sardinia. 


Armies : 


Citizens. 




Mercenaries, and subject 
peoples. 


Basis of life, occupa- 


Agriculture. 




Commerce. 


tion : 








Material civilization : ^ 


Primitive. 




Highly developed. 


Ideal : 


Soldier and law 


-giver. 


Wealthy merchant and skil- 
ful navigator. 



Comparative Power among states, — about equal, as shown by the 

affair of the Mamertiiies. 
Growth of Rome during Period. 
In dominion. 

By First Punic War, — 

Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, alliances in Spain and Gaul. 
By Second Punic War, — 

Spain, dependent alliance of Carthaginian Africa. 
By period from Second to Third Punic AVar, — 
Cisalpine Gaul. 
Macedonia and Greece. 
Western Asia Minor. 
By Third Punic War, — 

Carthaginian Africa, as a province. 

[Note that this conquest is steady and progressive, new possessions 
being adjacent to old.] 

In wealth : 

The tribute of Carthage, Macedonia, and Sicily. 
In fighting power : 

Tributary troops of Carthage, Macedonia, and Sicily; 

1 After the preliminary study on Phoenicia, this comparison should be 
made almost without tJiinking on the part of the student. 



48 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Punic Period, 264-146 b.c. — Continued. 

Allied troops of Western Asia; 
The formation of a fleet; .*. 

Becomes leading military power of Mediterranean. 
In influence : 

Becomes leader and arbiter of Mediterranean lands. 
In organization : 

Beginning of provincial governments (imperial type'). 
In civilization : 

Influence of Greece and the Orient, seen in 
literature, 
art. 
life. 
Character displayed during Period. 
By Carthage : 

Avarice, — mistaken prudence ; at the last, patriotism. 
Dependence on great generals, and their personal power 
over mercenaries (Hannibal).'^ 
By Hannibal : 

Patriotism, perseverance, determination, ingenuity, cour- 
age, personal power, good judgment. 
By Greece : 

Disunion, jealousy, love of freedom. 
By Rome, before the close of Second Punic War : 

Reliance on whole body of citizens, on law and patriotism. 
Patriotism, determination, courage, perseverance. 
Strong regard for religious forms. 
Native genius, — military, legal, engineering. 
Concentration of life at city of Rome : 

Legal and military, in hands of patricians. 
Literary and artistic, in hands of foreigners 
(Greeks). 

1 Note that Hannibal's single qualities, acting through a body of loyal 
soldiery, match the collective qualities of the Roman state, acting through 
a body of patriotic citizens. Hannibal has within himself those elements 
of success which Rome possesses, and which Carthage lacks ; but finally, 
he lacks tlie independent power to develop his own genius to a victorious 
issue. It is a significant contrast that Carthage concentrates her greatness 
in a single man, while Rome obtains greatness from the diffusion of great 
qualities among her citizens. 



STUDY ON REPUBLICAN ROME. 49 

By Rome, in later Punic period, 201-146 B.C. 
Growth of new aristocracy on bases of 
military \ 

official >- superiority, 
monied ) 
Tendency to subject law to the individual (Scipio, 

Fabius). 
Growth of demagogism, — games, corn distributions. 
Growth of popular power (Roman rabble). 
Political corruption. 
Harshness, cruelty, and injustice to allies, provincials, 

and slaves. 
Influx of Greek and Oriental culture 
brought in by 

triumphs. 

returning soldiers and officials, 
opposed by Cato and old-style Romans. 
Ideal, — the successful general with plenty of booty. 
Taste for coarse and cruel amusements, — low comedy, 

gladiatorial fights. 
Tendencies to atheism, together with superstition and 

formality. 

Decay of small farmers 

caused by 

large estates worked by slaves, hence 

no demand for free labor. 

distributions of cheap or free provincial 

grain at Rome, hence 
no Roman market for grain, 
resulting in 

drift of landless men to Rome. 

selling of the suffrage. 

idle Roman populace, dependent on foreign 

bread, 
dangerous country population of slaves. 

The chief point to be noted in regard to organization during 
this period is the formation of an imperial relation. This rela- 
tion really begins with the acquisition of Sicily and the estab- 
lishment of provincial government, personified in proconsuls, 



50 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

whose absolute rule abroad introduced the imperial principle 
into the Roman state. This point, though simple, must be 
emphasized, since the whole fabric of the empire had this for 
its excuse, the necessity of some organization by which a city 
could rule far-distant peoples and lands, and the emperors were 
always the rulers of the provinces rather than of Rome. The 
events of the later Punic period show very clearly how it was 
that when Rome had once made herself decidedly stronger than 
her neighbors, they naturally sought her alliance and her influ- 
ence ; thus, as the keeper of the peace, or as the champion of 
one party, people, or prince against another, the chosen arbiter 
and protector of the various Mediterranean lands became their 
administrator and conqueror. Even in this period, it is to be 
noted, that while the subject peoples of Rome were forced to 
accept absolutism at her hands, yet it was perhaps a lesser evil 
than their own chronic condition of civil war and anarchy. 
Just here, the pupil should be able to foresee something of the 
necessary future growth of Roman dominion, and at least to 
forecast the completion of the Mediterranean circle. If the 
teacher think best, he may at once ask for a comparison of the 
map on p. 157, with that of the finished empire, when the pupil 
will see that the natural process of growth only ends when 
great natural boundaries are reached, — the Rhine, the Danube, 
the ocean, the Sahara. 

The details of the Second Punic War are remarkably instruc- 
tive, since by the very nature of the case they give us a con- 
stant comparison of characters and tempers and organizations. 
The citizen army versus the mercenary band, the popular con- 
trol of military movements as opposed to the absolutism of a 
great general, the respective play of moral forces in the indus- 
trial and the commercial state — all these are well worth study- 
ing. In the text I have called attention to a few detailed 
points, as to that unfortunate Roman organization which divided 
the command of the army between two consuls at the crisis of 
Cann^, when, if ever, Rome needed the absolute rule of a 
dictator to ensure prompt decision and consistency of action. 



STUDY OX REPUBLICAN EOME. 51 

The teacher will find it well worth his while to take all the time 
necessary to a fair appreciation of the changed conditions of 
Roman life and the consequent change in Roman character that 
are found in existence in the later Punic period, since thorough- 
ness here means the easy comprehension of the Empire. The 
fundamental change of all is due to the new ideals that entered 
the popular mind. The successful general, returning with 
plenty of money and with hosts of strange and beautiful objects, 
easily became the popular hero, and could have what he would 
from the admiring crowd whose man he was willing to be. He 
could not oppress the Roman populace, it is true, for he had 
competitors who might outbid him to-morrow in glory or gener- 
osity ; unfortunately, competitors of his own kind, for, b^^ that 
constitutional fault which Perikles found it well to correct in 
Athens, no poor man could afford to hold office, since public 
officers were unpaid.^ Hence arose a class of men, who wrested 
victories and tributes from abroad to become kind, indulgent 
demagogues at home. Perhaps Scipio ma}- fairly stand as the 
first of the line which ended only with the firm establishment 
of imperialism. 

In the midst of her rapidh^ growing dominion, Rome was 
threatened by new dangers from within. Those arising from 
the oppression of slaves and allies are too evident and too 
tem[)orary to require more than a simple passing notice ; but 
the most careful attention should be given to the land-question, 
since it is one of our pressing modern problems, and since, in the 
later republic, the actual facts are so well known, and the logic of 
events and conditions pressed so relentlessly on to its fatal end. 
By the importation of foreign slaves into Italy, the market for 
rural labor was destroyed, since the wealthy non-resident 
Roman landlords found it cheaper to work their countr}'- 
estates b}' slaves ; by the importation of foreign grain, which 
rival demagogues cheapened or even gave away, the market for 
wheat was taken from the farmers of Italy, and without capital 

1 Compare modern constitutions, British and American. 



52 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

they found themselves quite unable to compete against the 
masters of large slave- worked estates, as raisers of stock or 
keepers of vineyards. So the small country holdings and the 
multitudinous country interests that held the men of Italy bound 
in close relations to her soil gradually died out, and the country 
population became one of slaves, mostl}' imported from abroad, 
with no interest, native or acquired, either in the soil or its 
labors. As for the owners of these estates, the}' mostlj' lived 
at Rome, using their countr}' places for revenue and pleasure ; 
meanwhile, the old country population crowded to the city, 
where it formed an idle, helpless herd, corrupting the decisions 
of the Forum by its mercenary votes, sold to the highest bidder 
for amusement or food. Thus the living union of the soil and 
the man perished, the respect for labor vanished when it was 
no longer free, and the people of Ital}" became largely depend- 
ent on the provinces for food. Thus a natural relation arose 
between successful conquerors or rulers of provinces and suc- 
cessful and popular magistrates in Rome, and again the inevi- 
table course toward imperialism was confirmed. 

The last question on p. 169 calls for a classification of the 
dangerous tendencies of Rome into those that are politically, 
socially, and religiously so. But I have purposely' set this 
question in order to call attention to the fact that it is almost 
impossible to make such a classification since the social, politi- 
cal, and religious life, all make the complex organism of the 
state, and are inextricably mingled in its structure. The varied 
classifications made b}^ the pupils will easil}' elucidate this point. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — The military 
versus the industrial character. (Debate.) The debate at Messana 
over the Roman or Carthaginian alliance. The end of Greece. The 
citizen army ; its defects and excellencies. The causes of the growth 
of the new aristocracy at Rome. When was Rome greater, at 264 or 
146 B.C.? At what time would you have been proudest to have been 
a Roman citizen ? Draw parallels between any modern conditions 
that you know and the condition of affairs at Rome in the later Punic 
period. Account of a SjDanish soldier to his village-comrades of the 
Italian campaign with Hannibal. A Roman soldier's first visit to 



STUDY ON EEPUBLICAN ROME. 53 

Athens. What tendencies and characteristics of the later Punic 
period seem to you legitimate developments from the earlier Roman 
character ? 

B. III. STUDY OIT EEPUBLICAN EOME, POST-PUMO PEEIOD. 

The work from pp. 170-192 should reach the general results 
indicated in the following summary : — 

ROMAN REPUBLIC, POST-PUNIC PERIOD, 146-27 B.C. 

Organization, — Military, Imperial, Democratic. 

Imperial, through the Mediterranean basin, excepting Italy. 
Democratic, in Italy, centering 
at Rome. 

in military leaders, or Imperators (Emperors). 
Characteristics. 

Constant party strife, — over questions, over persons, between 
people and senate (democracy v. aristocracy). 
Italians and Romans, 
poor and rich. 
Social discontent 

displaying itself in 

dissensions of the Gracchi, 
servile revolts. 
Social War. 
resulting in 

agrarian laws (to check the growth of large estates), 
extension of suffrage to Italy. 
Progressive growth ^ of Roman dominion to natm-al limits of 

seas, rivers, mountains, deserts. (See map.) 
Progressive centralization of power 

in persons of successful generals, — 
Marius. 
Sulla. 
Pompey. 
Julius Caesar. 
Augustus Csesar Imperator (emperor). 

1 The easy and natural course of this progressive dominion, as com- 
pared with the long and endless civil disturbances, indicates that the real 
strength of Rome lay in her armies rather than in her constitutions. 



54 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Roman Republic. — Continued. 

developed by necessities of the state for 
provincial order, 
frontier defence, 
military organization, 
based on popular favor, secured by 
games, grain-distribution, 
eloquence in favor of popular measures, 
generous use of money, 
actual command of armed forces, 
military success. 
Corruption and weakness of Roman government, 
consisting in 

bribery, extortion, injustice, inefSciency, stupid 
selfishness (treatment of allies), 
seen in 

the Jugurthine War. 
the conspiracy of Catiline, 
the prosecution of Verres. 

constant civil wars and disturbances, and their 
difficult suppression. 
Growing love of v/ealth and pleasure. 
Development of native Italian talent 

in oratory •\ 

in poetry (under Greek influence) > new.^ 
in history ) 

in engineering, law, politics, war, — as before. 
Growth of skepticism among cultured, of superstition among 
masses, 

resulting in 

adoption of Greek philosophy 

deification of Ceesar. 

identification of religion with the state. 

^ It is to be noted that when the Italian genius began to display itself 
in a literature truly Latin, it still declared itself a practical genius, choos- 
ing facts and contemporary life and incident for its material, even when 
dependent on the Greeks for form. The direction which the native genius 
was to take in all its original work is well marked out by the list of 
subjects on which the Elder Cato wrote, p. 163. 



STUDY ON REPUBLICAN KOME. 55 

The above tabulation is so very general that it can only be 
given after the full completion of the work. During its prog- 
ress, the teacher may wish to sub-summarize the results of 
some of the special studies something as follows : — 

"Dissensions of the Gracchi." 

Caused by 

unequal distribution of land. 

unequal political status of Italians and Romans.^ 

exclusive judicial power of senate. 

discontent of 



poor, 
knig' 
Italians. 



knights. 



Resulting in 

formation of parties : 

Democratic (radical, reforming party, embodied 

in popular assembly). 
Aristocratic (conservative party, embodied in 
senate) . 
more violent agitation (Drusus, and Social War), 
establishing of precedents of violent and illegal action 
in city government. 

The last point in this summary is of prime importance ; from 
the time of the Gracchi onward, neither the people nor their 
leaders serioush^ hesitated to use force or to override the con- 
stitution in order to achieve their aims. Thus Marius and 
Sulla ruled the Forum by force of arms, disregarded or t3'ran- 
nized over elections, while Sulla, as dictator, assumed not only 
the powers of a general, but those of the Roman assemblies as 
well, in disposing of the lands and lives of citizens. 

Perhaps there is no one series of events so instructive in 
regard to all the political relations at Rome as that of the 

1 The Roman franchise meant to the Italians cheap grain, a share in 
the conquered lands of the rapidly growing dominion of Rome, oppor- 
tunity for glory, wealth, and political power. The Romans naturally 
delayed to grant it, since division of the spoils meant a smaller share for 
themselves. 



56 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 

Jugiirthine War. At its opening, we see just how it was that 
Rome became so easily mistress when once she became medi- 
ator. Numiclia, nominally independent, was in realit}' the 
absolute subject of Rome, and declared herself so in the alter- 
nate appeals of her princes. As soon as actual interference 
began, we see in turn the moral weakness of Rome, the inabil- 
ity of her senators and generals to maintain an acknowledged 
right against the power of the bribe, the insubordination of her 
armies, the unwillingness of her generals to displease the mob 
of the forum or the camp. Again we see the close relation 
existing between success on the field and official success in 
Rome, the rivalry of the Italian and the Roman, of the senate 
and the tribes. The whole history is not so significant as being 
the story of the conquest of Numidia as in being the account 
of the subtle ruin which Roman citizens, generals, and senators 
were all bringing upon their native city. 

The provincial government of Verres injured Rome by dimin- 
ishing her revenue, reputation, and consequent power, b}' wast- 
ing and depopulating her grain-growing estates, by shaking 
that religious faith which always formed a basis of political 
power in antiquity. The speech of Cicero, moreover, shows 
that the case of Verres was typical, and that provincial oppres- 
sion and greed of provincial office for the sake of provincial 
spoils was no uncommon thiug\ 

In the rise of Julius Caesar we have another of those special 
studies that throw light for us on the whole contemporary life 
and action of his state. The prominent qualities of his charac- 
ter were resolution, hardihood, unscrupulousness, daring, mixed 
with prudence, patience, temperance, generosity, intellectual 
taste and power, personal vanit}^ and ambition, warm and ready 
sj'mpathies with those who aided or did not withstand his power ; 
add to this the genius of Rome's greatest general, and an elo- 
quence equal to that of the best, and you find combined in this 
one man every quality needful for success in a government fallen 
into the hands of a spoiled city populace, ready to be bought 
by the magnificent expenditures which Caesar well knew how 



STUDY ON REPUBLICAN ROME. 57 

to make, and ready to be intimidated by troops invincibly 
attached to a leader who was the personification of good fellow- 
ship and soldierly quality. Fortunately for Rome, however, 
Csesar was greater than a mere demagogue. He aspired not 
to be greater because of Rome, but to make Rome greater be- 
cause of Caesar ; hence, to his name and suggestion may be 
traced many of the noblest measures of the early empire. The 
latest follower of the Gracchi, he stood for the rights of the 
provinces as they had stood for those of Ital3^ He had a 
higher ambition than to give the citizens of Rome new peoples 
for slavery and new lands for plunder ; he had a vision of a 
strong and thoroughly-welded state, that should be comprised 
of provincials as well as Romans, but through which the Roman 
genius should interpenetrate a living growth by transmarine 
and transalpine colonization. Hence, we find that the enemies 
of Csesar are Romans, while the universal provincial mourning 
for him shows the cosmopolitan sympathies which he felt and 
aroused. Perhaps the time has not yet passed when ever}^ one 
has a right to his own opinion as to the effect of Caesar's death on 
Rome. To us, his assassination seems but to prolong the death- 
agony of the republic, and delay the inevitable birth of empire. 
Throughout these studies, the constant evolutional relation 
between the tendencies and character of the later Punic period, 
and the tendencies and character of the last age of the republic 
should be kept in view. 

The " General Study" on p. 189 should allow the freest dis- 
cussion and the largest possible range of opinion, at the same 
time that certain positive generalizations are made, as that, 
from beginning to end, the Romans had one unchanging ideal, 
the militar}', and one unchanging taste, for the practical. In 
the later republic we see the new ideals of wealth and pleasure 
arising from new resources brought to Rome b}" her victorious 
armies ; meanwhile, the old admiration for a simple, even 
severe, type of morals and manners gives way before the charms 
of the Greeks and the lawlessness of popular heroes. In fact, 



58 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

regarding the native Roman genius as practical, legal, military, 
the most Roman age of all her history would seem to be that 
of the earlier republic, culminating in the epic of the second 
Punic war. But here opinions would justly differ. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination "Work. — What essen- 
tials for good republican government did Rome lack in the first cen- 
tury B.C.? Dialogue regarding their respective miseries between a 
Greek slave and an Italian farmer, 100 B.C. Julius C?esar, the avenger 
o£ the Gracchi. The political importance of the murder of Tiberius 
Gracchus. Journal of a Roman citizen, 88-78 b.c. The popular ori- 
gin of the emperors. The Greek versus the Roman genius. (Debate.) 
The relation between Roman tastes and amusements, and the develop- 
ment of the Roman character. Letter written home by a Gallic soldier 
and senator on the occasion of Caesar's death. The Roman roads and 
the Roman Empire. Reflections of Adherbal on Rome. Reflections 
of Cato on the past and the present. 



C. I. STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE.— ATOUSTUS TO 
OONSTANTINE, 27B.0.-306 A.D. 

Discussion of Map-Questions. — The questions on p. 192 are 
so easy and general, that the teacher may introduce a pleasing 
variety' b}' allowing their discussion to come up in a class-room 
conversation without any previous preparation. 

Even from the first, the division of the Empire into a Latin 
half and a Greek and Oriental half was predestined. From 
Trieste eastward, the bulk of the towns were founded and 
inhabited by Greeks and Orientals, and were mistresses of 
lands and peoples stamped for centuries by Greek and Oriental 
culture. From Trieste westward, the towns were mostly of 
Roman foundation, and set in the midst of a barbarism un- 
touched even in the days of Perikles. The onl}" exceptions 
important to note are the southern parts of Spain and Italy, 
where the Greek and Oriental mixture always strongly modified 
the Latin element. 

The two facts of the large number of cities in the Empire, 
and of their position, almost witliout exception, on the coast. 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIEE. 59 

or on river-coiirses, indicate the general commercial activity of 
the Empire ; but '' All roads led to Rome." 

The studies on the Pagan Empire may be summarized some- 
what as follows : — 

PAGAN EMPIRE, 27 B.C.-306 A.D. 

Central Organization : Imperialism, tending to hereditary despotism. 
Centralized in 

person of emperor. 

city of Rome {citizens of Rome have the highest rights 
and privileges possible under the Empire). 
Supported by 

standing army, substantial basis of power, 
general taxation, severest in the provinces.^ 
adulation and adoration (deification) of emperors, 
republican forms and titles. 
Dependent for excellence on 

character of emperors ; e.g., Nero and the Antonines. 
Bonds of union : 

Language, — 

Latin in West. 
Greek in East.^ 
Law and government. 
Worship (adoration of emperor).^ 
Easy communication by roads, seas, rivers. 
Local Organizations : Municipal, republican, democratic, similar to 
the organization of republican Rome, which the cities of the 
West largely copied. 

Tendencies and Characteristics. 

Growth of Greek and Oriental influence, seen in 
literature and art. 
language, 
religion (^Christianity). 

1 Indeed, to use the telling phrase of Prof. Seeley, the provinces were 
"the great estates " of Rome, whose revenues fed and clothed her citizens. 

2 Note that the East roughly corresponds to the old Alexandrian Empire. 
^ Jews and Christians were monotheists, and so could not join the body 

of the Empire consistently in this regard; hence, one reason for their 
constant persecution. 



60 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Pagan Empire. — Continued. 

Practical bent of Roman mind, seen in 

native forms of literatm-e, — history and contemporary- 
criticism, 
public works, — baths, bridges, aqueducts, amphitheatres. 
Growth of Christianity, — 
seen in 

imperial persecutions. 

growth of Christian literature (compare third cen- 
tury with first), 
importance of heresies, threatening disunion, 
favored by 

unity and peace of Empire, 
decay of old religions. 
Progressive civilization and equalization of the provinces,^ 
seen in 

origin and education of great men. 
universal suffrage given by Caracalla. 
Differentiation of East and West in 
language, — 

Latin (West). 
Greek (East), 
municipal foundations and population, 
civilization, — 

Latin (West). 
Greek and Oriental (East), 
thought (note Eastern origin of heresies). 
Development of municipal centres of influence and culture. 
Rome. 
Alexandria. 
Antioch. 
Carthage. 
Comparative peace and order. 
Decline of third century seen in 

deterioration of literature and art. 
constant civil war. 



1 That Spain came first into prominence was probably due to her 
earlier conquest by Rome, and possibly to her still earlier contact with 
Phoenicians. 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 61 

growing difficulties with barbarians, indicated by 

new defences of Koine. 

frontier wars, 
development of hereditary despotism, — 

Diocletian. 
change and deterioration of population. ^ 
Ideals : 

among the Pagans, — wealth, leisure, pleasure. 

among the Christians, — a pure, upright, brave, modest, 

industrious, self-denying, Christlike man. 

Permanent Remains of Civilization. 

Literature, — history, poetry. 

Roads. 

Laws. 

The Christian religion. 

Languages, — French, Spanish, Italian. 

Cultivated lands of Latin countries. 

Architectural forms, — arch and dome. 

The first question on p. 205 is intended to test the student's 
understanding of the word "constitutional/* as applied to 
organic changes in government ; such changes occurred in the 
transference of municipal elections from the assemblies to the 
Senate, under Tiberius ; in the introduction of provincials to 
the Senate, under Claudius ; in the new powers given by 
Hadrian to the Council of State ; in the extension of citizen- 
ship to every freeman of the Empire by Caracalla. These 
changes were all in the line of a natural development of the 
imperial constitution, and culminated at last in that radical 
step taken by Diocletian, — the division of the Empire between 
despotic rulers of the Oriental type. It is worth noting that 
equality grew with despotism ; or, to put it more justly, sub- 
jects ceased to rise, as rulers gained more universal power ; and 
the provincial basis of the power of the emperor received new 
illustration from the fact that, in the process of equalization, 

1 As the Roman populations decay, barbarian elements are substituted 
for them, especially in the army. 



62 STUDIES Il!ir GENERAL HISTORY. 

the provincials gained. Indeed, the provincials were the chief 
gainers by the whole imperial system ; no emperor would for a 
moment have tolerated such bad management as that of Verres 
and his fellows ; to rule the province well for the emperor 
meant that it should be protected from invasion and disorder, 
that its internal resources should be fully developed, and that 
its people should, on the whole, be contented with their Roman 
master. 

"With the universal loss of actual freedom, with the growth 
of great armies under rival generals, and the increasing custom 
of deciding the imperial succession by civil war, it was per- 
haps well that the hereditary principle should gradually come 
to be recognized ; for, while it subjected the Empire to the 
chance of birth, this was perhaps no worse a chance to run 
than that of the decision of war, while at least it relieved men 
from the confusion and anarch}^ of this latter method. Under 
either method, the great fault of the constitution was, that, 
resting as it did on a purely military basis, it neither repre- 
sented nor developed, but, on the contrary, repressed the moral 
and intellectual strength of the Empire, and that, too, in the 
direction of government, where such forces were most sorely 
needed. 

In the lists of great men and works in the imperial period 
we find simply the natural development of the practical Roman 
genius. We see that works on histor}-, science, law, biography, 
far outweighed in number and general value the productions of 
the poet or philosopher. The one great original poet, Horace, 
was clever rather than great, and acquired popularity by the 
graceful ease with which he satirized the actual world ; while 
Yirgil appealed to the pride of the Roman race by singing in a 
half historic form their own ancestral glories. 

In art the same tendency is to be noticed ; whenever Rome 
broke away from the influence of Greek subjects, she at once 
left the company of gods and heroes, and sought to delineate, 
without idealizing, the famous men, the striking scenes and 
characters of contemporary life. 



STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 63 

The study on p. 218 is intended rather to bring fresh proofs 
in support of previous points than to convey any new informa- 
tion. The extract from Virgil, p. 212, shows how easily an 
emperor like Augustus was regarded as a god, since, like the 
Roman deities in general, he procured for the people material 
blessings. The extract from Epictetus shows us, in a word, 
what these blessings were, and that, though the Romans had 
no longer either liberty or courage (see Tacitus) , they had, at 
least, peace and order, and freedom of movement. This, in 
fact, was the sole glory of the Empire. 

Even these material blessings were not unmixed ; Tiberius 
felt it when he pointed out to the Senate (p. 213) the absolute 
dependence of Italy on the provinces for her daily food. But 
the great faults of the imperial period were, after all, moral ; 
they are seen in that indifferent, selfish temper, which made 
" all Rome guilty of this Nero" ; in that avarice and jealousy 
of the legions, in that flattery and cowardice of citizens and 
senators alike, to which Otho owed the purple ; in that atmos- 
phere whose interest centred in horses and gladiators ; in that 
good-natured, fashionable contempt for labor, voiced by Pliny. 
All these influences were constantly educating a new generation 
into the typical Roman life of the period, while, according to 
Tacitus, they were strengthened rather than opposed b}^ the 
educational surroundings of the child. 

It is a grave question how far the individual was to blame 
for all this demoralization. A society organized on a slave 
basis, by virtue of that very fact cannot respect labor ; and 
the centralization of power in the hands of one man always 
tends to weaken the minds and morals of those subjected to 
it, — two mighty causes of wide-spread evils. 

At the close of all the discussions and summaries of this 
period, the teacher may, if he think best, thus summarize the 
contrasts between the Roman Empire and the Christian Church, 
considering both simply as historic organizations, brought into 
sharper and sharper contrast as the fourth century ap- 
proached ; — 



64 



STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 





Roman Empire. 


Christian Gfwrc/i. 


Founded on 


force of arms. 


force of ideas and faith in 
them. 


Bonds of union 


government, law, language, 


belief in the fatherhood of 




formal worship of the 


one God, and the brother- 




emperor. 


hood of all men. 


Social distinc- 


based on birth, wealth, and 


none ; equality of all classes 


tions 


occupation. 


and races before God, a 
predominant teaching. 


Morality 


based on selfishness. 


based on unselfishness. 


Ideals 


the emperor, the wealthy 
man of leisure, the high 
official. 


the Christlike man. 



It will be noted in this contrast what mutually destructive 
agencies were arrayed against each other. Christianit}' entered 
the ancient world to maintain the manhood and brotherhood of 
the slave or the alien ; to preach the existence of one God and 
of no other ; to preach a morality based on love and self- 
denial. By virtue of these facts alone it attacked the whole 
framework of ancient societ}', which rested so firmly on bonds 
of kinship and a polytheistic worship, which had come to 
reo-ard a standins; army as the condition of life itself, and 
whose best moralit}^ was an enlightened selfishness. Since 
that framework was largely wrought in favor of privileged 
classes, we see at once why Christianity was so fiercely attacked 
by the empire and so fondly and rapidly embraced by "the 
Many." 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination "Work. — The debt 
of Rome to Alexander. The debt of France and Spain to Rome. 
Parallel between the Emperor Augustus and the Greek " tyrants." 
Suppose that Brutus and Cassius had won at Philippi, instead of 
Octavian, what then? A journey from Rome to London, 100 a.d. 
The Roman citizen the aristocrat of the Empire, 100 a.d. Journal of 
a Gallic soldier who was sent from the Rhine frontier to Memphis. 
Did the provinces conquer Rome, or Rome the provinces? The 
power behind the imperial throne. Reflections of a Christian in the 



STUDY ON THE TEUTONIC BARBARIANS. 65 

Colosseum, 90 a.d. When did the changes formally made by Diocle- 
tian begin in reality? Where did political liberty still exist at 300 
A.D. ? The foreign debt of Roman literature. The Roman road v. 
the Phoenician ship. What is the most universal bond of union you 
have yet found in your study of history ? 



STUDY OIT THE TEUTOl^IO BAEBAEIANS. 

The general results of the study may be tabulated as fol- 
lows : — 

THE TEUTONIC BARBARIANS. 

Organization: Tribal — aristocratic and local. 
Units and bonds of union : 

patriarchic family, — kinship-bond. 

village community and mark-moot, — political unit with 
kinship-bond and bond of common property; 
supported by agriculture, 
warrior-band, — bonds of loyalty to a leader and a com- 
mon interest ; supported by booty of war. 
Classes of society and occupations (believed of divine origin) : 
serfs, — hard manual labor, 
freemen, — artisans and directors, 
nobles, — warriors . 
Magistrates : 

kings or chiefs, chosen for birth ; supported by gifts, 
chieftains, heads of warrior-bands ; supported by plunder, 
judges, chosen by the people for ability. 
Assemblies : 

mark-moot, — general village assembly, purely local, 
assembly of chiefs, — deliberative. 

general assembly of freeborn warriors, — declares war, 
makes law, elects leaders and citizens, judges. 
Characteristics. 

Bases of life : 

war, seen in vocabulary and songs, and in warrior-band, 
agriculture, seen in vocabulary and in village community. 
Independent, local, democratic tendency in politics. 



66 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTORY. 

The Teutonic Barbarians. — Continued. 

Love of independence. 

Insecurity of society. 

Strength and influence of women. 

Generous hospitality ; scorn of manual (serf) labor. 

Ideal, — warrior. 
Race-Relationship, Aryan: seen in organizations, vocabulary, myths, 

ideas. 

Although this is a short study, it should be treated with 
marked care, since we now meet a fundamentally new type of 
societ}'. Ancient Greece and Rome were "city-states,"^ the 
powers of modern Europe are " country-states."^ The history 
of the former began in an Acropolis or Capitol ; that of the 
latter starts from the village and the canton ; the city-state 
was an independent unit ; the village and the canton are related 
b^' their organization to a larger area and population than their 
own. These differences developed greater, but at first the 
resemblances between the primitive groups of Teutons, Greeks, 
and Romans were more pronounced than their differences. 
Even that fundamental fact in the Teutonic village, the com- 
mon possession of land apportioned b}^ the majority votes of 
the marks-men, seems to be matched by the division of public 
lands among the Roman citizens ; although, in the former case, 
the matter was far more closely connected with the very foun- 
dation of the state, and the land was not only divided, but 
managed by the mark-moot. But positive and unquestioned 
resemblances are to be found in the assemblies. Thus the 
Teutonic assembly of chiefs matched the Homeric assembly of 
Elders, the Areopagus, the various senates ; to the mark-moot 
corresponded the Agora, the Ekklesia, the Centuries, and the 
Tribes ; everywhere appeared the kinship-bond and the patri- 
archal family. Between magistrates it is more difficult to draw 
the parallel, since the god-born king among the Teutons seems 
at first subordinate to the warlike chief whom a tribe may 

1 These terms are borrowed from Prof. J. R. Seeley. 



STUDY ON THE TEUTONIC BARBARIANS. 67 

choose to follow. This determination of rank by might in 
war finds illustration again in the fact that admission to the 
full political and military status of a Teuton was onl}' won by 
proved ability in arms, although Teutonic birth gave the first 
right to the Teutonic name ; and the kinship-bond had been so 
purely preserved, that, to Tacitus, the people appeared of pure, 
unmiugled race. Once admitted to full Teutonic privileges, 
however, the individual found himself a free and equal member 
of a democratic community. 

Throughout this work the teacher should keep it well before 
the mind of the pupil that, in a more special sense than before, 
he is studying the origin of his own people and kin-folk, of his 
own ancestors in direct lineage. The following little table will 
show him how we stand in the great Ar3'an relationship : — 

EUROPEAN ARYAN STOCK. 

Keltic : Irish, Scotch, Welsh . 

Teutonic : Germans, English, Scandinavians, Americans. 

Slavic : Russians, Servians, and other Christian peoples of the Balkan 

peninsula, to a greater or less degree. 
Graeco-Italian : The Greeks and Romans of antiquity. 

Since the directions and dates of the early Aryan migrations 
are still in the field of theory, it is best for the teacher, 
while allowing surmise, to discourage positive statements. 
That the migrations must have antedated 1000 B.C. is sure 
enough, from the fact of the then-established Greek, Italian, 
and Keltic peoples, fully separated by speech and habits. 
Geographical distribution, again, points with apparent clearness 
to a general westward movement from Asia, and would seem 
to indicate still further that the Kelts were the adventurous 
leaders of the host, pushed westward as they seem to have 
been by the restless hordes behind them. The Slavs, by the 
same evidence, would seem to have been the latest comers. 
This, however, must be clearly understood to be but a plausible 
theory. We have some evidence in the common vocabulary of 
the house and field for maintaining that, before their separa- 



68 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

tion, the Aryans already had in common possession the arts of 
agriculture, and some primitive form of navigation ; that their 
flocks supplied the wool they wove and wore, while their herds 
performed for them the labors of the field, and furnished them 
the products of the dairy, which, with ground grain, made the 
staples of their food. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination "Work. — A visit to 
the primitive Aryans before their separation into the various Euro- 
pean races. The mark-moot and the New England town meeting. 
Compare the Teutonic ideal of womanhood with our own. Reflec- 
tions of a Teutonic prisoner of Julius Caesar on what he saw at Rome. 
The Aryan bonds of union. 



C. 11. THE OHEISTIAN EMPIER — OONSTANTINE TO 
OHAELEMAG:ff£. 

This division of the imperial history at the name and date of 
Constantine is popular rather than accurate ; although, as the 
founder of Constantinople, he appeared to the popular mind as 
the founder of the Eastern Empire, yet Diocletian had in reality 
been the first thus to divide the Roman dominion. Led to 
victory and converted, as he maintained, by the sign of the 
cross, and the first of the emperors to give Christianity high 
rank in the faiths of the Empire, Constantine has naturally been 
considered the founder of its temporal power, although it did 
not become the legal faith oi Rome until the days of Theo- 
dosius. But since great and stirring events and influential 
myths have gathered about the name of Constantine, and since 
the great changes attributed to him did in reality receive from 
him their greatest impetus, it has seemed best for the purposes 
of a popular text-book to take advantage of the popular 
tendency to link the great events of an age with its greatest 
name. 

After 476 no more attention is paid to the Eastern Empire 
than is necessary in order thoroughly to understand the general 



CHRISTIAN EMPIRE UNDER ROMAN CONTROL. 69 

histoiy of Europe ; for, from that time, it follows its inevitable 
tendency to become an Oriental state, tempered and colored by 
the Greek culture. 



II A. THE OHRISTIAIT EMPIEE UmEE EOMAN OONTEOL. 

The studies on pp. 231-250, inclusive, may be summarized 
as follows : — 

CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. — CONSTANTINE TO ODOVAKAR AND 

THEODORIC. 

Organization of State : Oriental despotism. 
Centred 

at Rome and Constantinople, 
in persons of the emperors. 
Supported by 

forced taxes, 
barbarian armies. 

favor of privileged, powerful classes, — 
officials, 
soldiers, 
clergy. 

Organization of Church : Parallel to, and united with that of the state. 
Centred 

at Home and Constantinople, 
in hands of bishops and emperors. 
Based on and supported by 

the belief and trust of men. 
conversion of barbarian masses. 
Goths. 
Visigoths. 
Irish, 
imperial edicts ^ (suppression of Paganism), 
favor of the poor, oppressed, neglected majority. 

1 As Pontifex Maximtis^ the emperor was naturally regarded as the legal 
and temporal head of the church. 



70 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Christian Empire. — Continued. 
Marked by 

internal unity, resulting from 
suppression of heresy, 
orthodox standard of faith, — 
Council of Nice, 325 a.d. 
acquirement by bishops of 
privilege, 
wealth. 

judicial power, 
spirit and forms of democracy. 
Characteristics of Period : 

Growth of Teutonic power 
caused by 

constitution of armies, composed of and officered 

by barbarians, 
settlement of Teutons as laborers and owners of 
imperial soil in Gaul, Italy, Spain, and the 
lands of the Danube, 
culminating in so-called " Fall of Western Empire." 
shaped by Roman influence in 

religious organization and faith, 
military and political organization, 
ideals (see speech of Adolphus, p. 249). 
Pervading influence and power of Christianity, 

seen in 

organization. 

persecution of Paganism. 

law. 

predominant taste for religious literature. 

Arian controversy.^ 

1 The intensity with which men were interested in theology is best seen 
in that large fact of the irreconcilable hostility of the Arian barbarian 
and the orthodox provincial. That this hostility was primarily religious 
is proved by the fact that in Gaul, during the next period, the orthodox 
barbarian Franks easily mingled with the orthodox provincials. This vio- 
lent hostility thoroughly justified to the men of that time the attempts of 
emperors and councils to enforce that unity of beUef which meant both 
peace and power. Compare with the feeling often roused in modern times 
between Protestants and CathoUcs. 



CHKISTIAN EMPIRE UNDER ROMAN CONTROL. 71 

the new saint-ideal, resulting in monastic organiza- 

tion. 
new materials (biblical and religious), in 
art and literature.^ 
mingled with pagan and heathen ideas, 
employed to 

humanize law. 

modify absolutism (Theodosius and Ambrose). 

protect the poor and oppressed. 

Intellectual leadership of East, 
seen in 

predominating proportion of literary centres, — 
Alexandria, Athens. 
Antioch, Caesarea. 
origin of literary men. 
origin of monastic ideal and of heresies. 

Moral decay of Kome, 
seen in 

imperial absolutism (see laws), 
corruption (bribery) and extravagance of courts ; .*. 
corruption and extravagance of fashionable life, 
servility, superstition, idleness, 
gluttony and luxury, 
resulting in 

hatred of Rome by her own subjects, 
oppression of over-taxed provinces. 

All the facts of this obscure but most important period 
clustered about three centres, — the church, the Empire, and 
the barbarians. These three centres were, however, connected 
in vital relations. The church and the barbarians took to 
themselves all that was 3^et alive and of w^orth in the deca^'ing 
Empire. Her intellectual and moral energy passed to the 
church ; her military and political power to the barbarians ; 

1 Although in its beginnings Christian art could claim neither beauty 
nor truth, it was nevertheless original in its materials and impulses. In 
this originality lay the promise of the new development and inspiration 
which was to culminate in Raphael and Michael Angelo. 



72 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOPwY. 

this receives fine illustration from the fact that in the fourth 
and fifth centuries of her history, the great names were either 
those of bishops and popes, or those of war-chiefs and generals. 
The bishops and popes belonged to the civilized provincials, 
while the generals and war-chiefs were pure barbarian leaders.^ 
This one fact shows how the force of the Empire, leaving its 
old forms, deadened by despotism, and its old populations, 
spoiled and helpless through luxury and moral decay, was 
urging its way into fresh forms and among new peoples. 

So long as the Empire had appeared to rule for the greatest 
benefit of the greatest number, the sting of despotism was con- 
cealed ; but in the fifth century it was, in the sight of all men, 
an organization managed in behalf of the ease, wealth, power, 
and pleasure of the emperor and his officials. In this regard, 
it was a striking contrast to the Athens of Perikles, or to Punic 
Rome, where the state was organized in behalf of the whole 
body of citizens. This contrast was still further heightened b}'' 
the fact that it was precisely on the whole body of citizens that 
the burdens of government fell; the " curiales," the " decuri- 
ons," the free, but untitled citizens of Rome were just those 
whom she deprived of arms for self-defense, and from whom 
she extorted the taxes demanded to support the pomp and waste 
of four courts, and the establishments of countless officials, to 
say nothing of the justifiable charges of a government defending 
an enormous frontier bj' professional troops. 

When the imperial government became so thoroughly a 
matter of routine, its excellence still depended, partly on the 
personal character of the emperor, but more on his power to 
select men fit to serve him as generals, secretaries, judges, 
since by these subordinates the business of the Empire was 
chiefly done. 



1 Yet it is interesting to note, that on the military greatness of the bar- 
barian, Kome depended for her strength ; while the intellectual and moral 
superiority of the Roman bishops was to spread civilization through the 
wider barbarian world. 



CHRISTIAN EMPIRE UNDER ROMAN CONTROL. 73 

So long as her soldiers remained true and obedient, and her 
lands productive, the Empire could hardly perish ; since, with 
money and troops, with the favor of the bishops who led opin- 
ion and of the officials who executed law, it possessed essential 
strength. But as her soldiery was drawn more and more from 
barbarian peoples, and so became less and less in sympathy with 
the habits and ideas of the Empire, and as, by slave-culture, 
absentee landlords, and a constantly increasing tax-pressure, 
the utility of her lands was gradually destroyed, the change of 
476 was inevitable. 

The teacher must not allow the popular ideas of the ' ' Fall of 
the Roman Empire " to influence him too strongly in his views 
of this change, which was in its reality a change in the propor- 
tions of population, and a shifting of power rather than a con- 
quest. As soldiers and as laborers, the barbarians had long been 
entering the Empire, until, at 476, they composed the better and 
stronger part of her fighting and working people. For, as the 
love of leisure and pleasure had rendered the arduous labors 
of the camp distasteful to the Romans, these had fallen natu- 
rally to great warrior bands, who gladly entered a service so 
congenial to their love of warfare. So soon, however, as the 
strength of conscious organization was felt by armies practi- 
cally barbarian, they naturally demanded recognized place and 
power in the Roman territory and among Roman officials, nor 
was there any force to withstand them. Although, in reality, 
political as well as militar}'^ power had now passed into the 
hands of the Teutons, and the leadership of Western Europe 
was acknowledged to be theirs, still to a contemporary Roman 
this change could not have seemed so profound or startling as 
we now know it to have been ; he would have stated the superfi- 
cial apparent fact that through the weakness of the western gov- 
ernment and the influence of the soldiery of Odovakar, both parts 
of the Empire were again united under the eastern emperor, 
who had now commissioned barbarian generals not only with 
the command of the legions, but also with the political manage- 
ment of the western provinces. By the provincials, indeed, 



74 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

such a change could not have been greath' deplored, since the 
Empire had become tlieir oppressor rather than protector, and 
since, according to Salvian, at least (p. 248), many of them 
had alread}' expressed their preference for barbarian rule. 

In all this, Rome but reaped as she had sown. The new 
ideals of life and morals, which entered Rome in the first 
century B.C., naturally culminated in such a picture as that 
drawn b}' Ammianus (p. 244) , and in the transfer of her power 
to the monk and the barbarian ; in other words, to men whose 
ideal was the self-denying saint, or the warrior who could die 
on the hard- fought field. 

Nevertheless, Rome had so long mastered the civilized world 
with law and the barbarian hordes with fear, that even in the 
midst of the weak confusion of the fifth century she seemed to 
the church the earthly prototype of the "City of God," while 
barbarian ambition looked to her as the shining centre of the 
world, the proudest source whence it could win its titles of com- 
mand. This name that had gathered to itself for more than a 
thousand years all that the world contained of strength and 
beauty and order, did not easily lose its deeply rooted power ; 
a power that must be reckoned with at least to the days of 
Charlemagne. 

In considering the organization of the church, two funda- 
mental facts must constantl}'^ be remembered ; one is, that 
Christianity became the state faith of the Emph-e, the historical 
successor of Paganism.^ The old temples were turned into 
churches ; state privileges and revenues passed from the old 
orders of priests to the new ; the whole organized framework 
of the Empire, with its central powers at Rome or Constanti- 

1 The extract given from the " City of God," p. 246, gives a curious 
illustration of the fact that, to the men of the fourth century, not only had 
one church and belief displaced another, but that actual supernatural 
powers, strong to work mischief to men, — deified evil spirits, in fact, — had 
been overthrown by the one true, beneficent God. Men no longer wor- 
shipped these old gods, but they still beheved in them and feared them as 
devils and demons. 



CHRISTIAN EMPIRE UNDER ROMAN CONTROL. 75 

nople, with its municipalities acting as mediators between the 
provinces and the emperor, with its imperial Pontifex Maximus, 
with its network of roads and posts, became the framework of 
the church ; from this point of view, the church appeared like 
a centralized hierarchy. But this other fact must always be 
remembered, that the strong officials of the church, the bishops, 
owed their power to popular elections, so that the government 
of the church might be described as a democracy, acting through 
a strongly organized centralization. 

That Rome should become a more strongly pronounced centre 
than Constantinople is not surprising when we notice that 
Rome had not a single powerful, long-established city in the 
west as her rival, unless we except Carthage, while Constanti- 
nople was the child of yesterday to Antioch, Alexandria, or 
Damascus. Again, the power of the emperors after Constan- 
tine more decidedly centred at the eastern than the western 
capital ; hence the power of the Roman bishop, left untram- 
meled by the imperial presence, grew more freely and strongly 
than that of the bishop of Constantinople ; and again, the name 
of Rome carried with it through all the West a power of mighty 
and ancient tradition, in which the "New Rome," Constanti- 
nople, was entirely wanting. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — Complaint 
of a decurion. The power of the church at 476 a.d. compared with 
that of the Empire. Coiistautine and Julian. The political value of 
a fixed creed. Famous barbarians of the later empire. What had 
the barbarian to give to the Empire ? Jom^nal of a Roman Christian, 
ransomed by St. Ambrose froni the Germans beyond the Rhine. 
St. Anthony. What resemblances between the saint-ideal of the 
fourth and fifth centuries and the warrior-ideal ? The conquests of 
the church. Private reflections of Claudian on his patron StiHcho. 
Compare life at Rome, in the days of Ammianus, with that in the 
days of Cincinnatus. 



76 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 



II. Band C. THE WEST UMEE BAEBAEIAN OOOTEOL; 
EMPIEE or OHAELEMAaNE. 

Summarize the studies, pp. 250-285, somewhat as follows : — 

CHRISTIAN EMPIRE, 476-814. — ODOVAKAR- CHARLEMAGNE. 

Organization of State, 476-800 a.d. 

In East : Oriental despotism, centred at Constantinople. 
In West : Delegation or abandonment of imperial power to 
bishops of Rome. 

barbarian kings and generals in Spain, France, Italy, 
Britain, Africa.^ 

Organization of State under Charlemagne. 

Restoration of name and style of Western emperors. 
Union of spiritual and temporal powers of pope and emperor in 
" Holy Roman Empire." ^ 

Organization of Church. 

Development of centralized papal power. 
Development of monasticism {^Benedictine order). 
Characteristics of Period in the Empire. 

Growing separation of East and West.^ 

1 Although this power was a delegated one, the barbarian leaders, as gen- 
erals of well-disciplined forces, held the actual military power of Europe ; 
while, as titled officers of the Empire, they gained the traditional power of 
its name; add to this that they were generally the chosen or hereditary 
native commanders of their armies. 

2 The mosaic of St. John, in Lateran (p. 275), shows pictorially the fun- 
damental ideas that underlay this Holy Roman Empire. By their size and 
relative position pope and emperor appear as equals, inferior to their Lord 
Christ, from whom they take their different powers as his delegates on 
earth. The account of the "Crowning of Charlemagne" again (p. 274), 
clearly shows that to himself and the men of his day Charlemagne was the 
" anointed of the Lord," and the source of his power divine, like that of 
the Avarrior-kings of Israel. 

3 After the Mohammedan conquests we find Islam dividing, like the 
Roman Em{)irc, into an eastern and a western part. Is it not possible that 
the old differences thus made themselves once more felt 1 



THE WEST UNDER BAKBARIAN CONTEOL. 77 

Favored by 

difference in language ^ and culture. 

inability of East to hold and govern the West; .•. 

imperial abandonment of Rome to ecclesiastic and 
barbarian control. 
Culminating in 

crowning of Charlemagne by pope, 800. 

Predominance of ecclesiastical power in the West. 
Caused or favored by 

imperial weakness and neglect, 
conversion of barbarians^ Q' conquests of Christian 
Empire "), — 

Goths. 

Vandals. 

Irish. 

Franks. 

Burgundians. 

Saxons in England. 

Saxons in Germany (Charlemagne). 

Scotch, 
protective attitude of church toward poor and 

oppressed, 
monopoly of Roman civilization, centred in 

monasteries. 
Resulting or appearing in 

temporal power of popes and bishops, — 

political. 

military. 

legal and judicial. 

1 Although modern languages began to assert themselves, still Latin 
was the tongue of the thinking and governing classes and the language of 
literature. 

2 It is not generally sufficiently insisted upon that while the "barbari- 
ans " overran the Empire, Christianity almost at once permeated the bar- 
barians, thus subjecting the strongest peoples of Europe to the religious 
organization and faith of the later Empire ; this subjection was aided by 
the impression which the Roman Empire and the Roman church still made 
upon the barbarians through its splendor, wealth, and titles (see p. 273, 
Conversion of Clovis). 



78 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOEY. 

Christian Empire. — Continued. 

development of asceticism, embodied in monas- 
tic organization, — 

idealizing self-denial and benevolence, 
opposing violence and selfishness, 
encouraging labor and learning, 
union of West in 
faith, 
language, 
law. 

ideals (monastic, saintly), 
religious character of intellectual interests, 
civilizing influences (largely monastic) in direc- 
tion of 

literature (chiefly monkish history and lit- 
erature), 
music.i 

law (humanizing it), 
industrial and decorative arts, science, 
morality and humanity, 
agriculture. 
Hindered by 

mixture and corruption of Christianity by 
paganism (demonology), and heresy, 
misunderstanding of its teachings {Clovis). 
Culminating in establishment of 
" Holy Roman Empire." 
Romanizing of the Teuton in 
religion — Christianity, 
language and literature, 
law. 

military tactics. 

agriculture and industry (monasteries). 
Provincial confusion and misery. 
Caused by 

weak government. 

barbarian attack, invasion, and change. 

1 It will be noted that music, painting and the arts of decoration owe 
their modern impulse to the mcdiasval church. 



{ 



THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 79 

Saracenic invasion. 

prevalence of personal rather than territorial law.^ 
Resulting in 

weakness of art and literature. 

corru]Dtion of Latin (begins to change to French, 

Italian, Spanish), 
strengthening of Teutonic provincial governments. 
Growth of vital power in West, seen in 

production of great men (bishops and warriors), 
military and political vigor of the Teuton, ^ culminating 

in Charlemagne, 
appearance of Western tongues in literature, — 
English ■) 

French /- indicating 
Irish ) 
intellectual advance of peoples, 
attempts at legal order. 
Rapid growth of Mohammedan faith and empire. 
Caused or favored by 

simplicity of belief. 

heretical disaffection of Egypt and Syria toward 
Constantinople.^ 
Resulting in 

imperial loss of 

Syria, — Damascus, Antioch. 
Egypt, — Memphis (Cairo),^ Thebes. 
Africa. Carthage. Spain. 
Checked by 

orthodox defenders, — 

Leo at Constantinople. 
Charles Martel at Touks. 

1 According to personal law, a man is judged by the law of his own 
people, wherever he may be ; according to territorial law, he is judged by 
the law of the land in which he dwells, no matter whence he came. 

2 This vigor had a double source, — the unbroken, warhke tastes of the 
Teuton and his heritage of Roman military tactics. 

^ Compare the cases of Africa and Spain, Avhich had been or were still 
under the power of Arians, who could easily accept the bare monotheism 
of Mohammed. 

* Compare the case of Bagdad, founded near the site of Nineveh. 



80 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

The points made from study to study in regard to Moham- 
medanism had better be tabulated, as far as possible, by them- 
selves, in order to preserve unity of view. The following is 
offered as suggestive : — 

THE SARACENS. 
Conquests, Religious. 

Government, Despotic Theocracy (Omar, Haroun ; see relation of 
palace and mosque, p. 281). 

Religious Doctrines. 

Monotheism. 
Divine inspiration 

of prophets, — Moses, Christ, Mohammed. 

of Koran, — revealed to Mohammed. 
Fore-ordained necessity of all events (fatalism).^ 
Immortality of the soul. 
Future rewards and punishments (of material sort).^ 

Religious Duties. 

Prayer, fasting. 

Alms-givin g, pilgrimage . 

Moral life according to Moslem standards, which 

allows polygamy, .•. 

produces subjection of women, modified by 
natural and religious feeling. 

condemns drunkenness and gaming. 

condemns cruelty to animals. 

preaches charity,^ faithfulness, justice, resignation. 

Civilization, at first simple, pastoral, and religious (Omar), becomes 
highly artistic, scientific, and material {Haroun-al-Raschid). 
Centering at^ 

Bagdad. Cairo. 

Damascus. Cordova. 

1 To these doctrines are generally ascribed a good part of the figliting 
energy of the Saracenic forces. 

2 The practical effect of this morality may be seen in the moderate 
treatment of Eastern Christians (see pp. 279, 280). 

3 Note also the Mohammedan possession of Antioch and Alexandria, 
and of Assyria, Egypt, and Persia, with their old civilized centres. 



THE WEST UNDER BAEBAEIAK CONTROL. 81 

Developing 

Moorish architecture and ornament, — 

horseshoe arch, dome (compare St. Sophia). 

minaret (spire), arabesque.^ 

trefoil and quatrefoil. 
scientific study of 

mathematics.^ 

astronomy. 2 

medicine.^ 

philosophy (Aristotle), 
commercial intercourse of East and West. 
industrial and agricultural activity; weaving, embroidery, 

metal-work, pottery, dyeing, inlaid work in wood 

and marble, horticulture, leather work (Morocco), 

manufacture of figured silk (damask). 
Springing from 

Greek and Oriental sources. 

Two things beyond all others marked this age. The first 
was the pervading and progressive power of religion ; in the 
West, the church predominated as a political and legal as well 
as an intellectual and moral influence ; in the East, political 
differences were confirmed by heresies, until at last all were 
alike swept away by the irresistible tide of Mohammedanism 
and its sim[)le monotheistic faith. The second thing was the 
mixture of influences produced by the constant mixture of 
peoples ; the church gTae to the barbarian the civilization as 
well as the faith of Rome, and her monks, travelling as mission- 
aries or envoys, from end to end of Europe, did much to create 



1 The beauty of the arabesque, and of Moorish work in general, de- 
pends not only on the skilful and intricate mingling of symmetrical 
mathematical forms, but also upon delicate and brilliant combinations of 
color ; the former quality pleasing the mind, and the latter the sense. The 
strict observance of the second commandment having prevented any 
development of sculpture or figure painting, the whole artistic talent of 
the Moors was turned to the lesser arts of pure decoration, in which, per- 
haps, they have never been excelled. 

2 Compare the Alexandrian civilization. 



82 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 

a united Christendom ; of these monks, there is no better type 
than Theodore of Tarsus, a Greek, sent by the Roman bishop 
to found the EngUsh Canterbury (p. 2G2). While tlie churcli 
penetrated the wilderness, the peoples of the wilderness con- 
stanth' penetrated the Empire ; invasion, settlement, conversion, 
mingled old and new, culture and barbarism, good and evil ; 
the church alone being fixed, little by little mastered the con- 
fusion. Perhaps no one thing better showed the varied influ- 
ences of the time than Western law, which based itself alike on 
the written codes of Rome and on Teutonic custom, while both 
were modified by the ever-present advice and aid of the 
bishops. 

In the East, on the other hand, Islam was the mingling power, 
which carried rude pastoral tribes into ancient and In'ghly 
civilized lands, whose finest culture they made their own, though 
"with a difference," and whence they conve^^ed it to the 
farthest West, which was still inferior to the East in all material 
and artistic ways.-^ 

In the West, the crowning of Charlemagne was the culmina- 
tion of the growing separation of the East and the West, of the 
developing temporal power of the Western church, and of the 
actual Teutonic as opposed to the nominal imperial rule ; for 
although the name of Roman emperor was heard again in tlie 
West, still the " Holy Roman Empire" embodied a revolt, and 
Charlemagne's title was usurped ; the new Empire covered new 
territories unknown to Roman rule, embraced the heart of 
modern Europe with the Rhine valley for its centre, comprised 
new populations and tongues, held its power as the temporal 
arm of the church, and as a gift from its spiritual head. In 

1 Historians often contend that the Moors had no original civilization, 
since they took their architectural and decorative " motives " from Con- 
stantinople, Damascus, or Persia, their science from Alexandria and Syria, 
their philosophy from Aristotle. Without insisting on a decision, it may 
be noted that they so advanced or modified or mingled what they took, 
that they left upon it such a distinctive mark of character as to demand a 
separate name for what is Moorish or Arabian, 



THE WEST UNDER BARBAllIAN CONTROL. 83 

spite of these fundamental differences, the tradition of Rome 
was still so strong as to force her name on any ruler who could 
pretend to hold the West together ; hence the value of receiving 
the imperial title from the Bishop of Rome, the only man left 
in Europe, except the Eastern emperor, who could be said to 
represent in historic line the authority of the ancient Empire ; 
thus received, too, the imperial title gained the sanction of 
religion, and the Empire could, as "Holy," claim the alliance of 
all Christendom ; from this time on, the names of Roman and 
Christian were synonymous in the West, and from this point of 
view we see the necessity which Charlemagne felt of convert- 
ing the Saxons before incorporating them into his empire. 

Although artistic, poetic, or pure intellectual genius was rare 
in this period, the fact was probably due to the circumstances 
of obscurity and confusion, which marked the time, since of 
greatness there was no lack, but it was a greatness that dis- 
played itself in action, feeling, and character rather than in 
vision. Nevertheless, I have chosen the motto on p. 228, be- 
cause, in spite of the clang and movement of the age, its real 
strength lay in quiet, germinal, partly unconscious powers, 
moving like leaven amid the troubled mass. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — " And after 
the fire, a still small voice." Clovis, patrician of Rome. What causes 
made the way of the Mohammedan conquests into the Empire compara- 
tively easy ? The strength of the pope. The visit of St. Augustine 
to Britain. Comparison of Augustus, emperor, with Charlemagne, 
emperor. Was the so-called " conversion " of the Saxons justifiable ? 
(Debate.) Why should Pope Gregory be called " Great " ? Reasons 
why a Goth became a Benedictine monk. Visit to Monte Cassino. 
Why should Justinian be the most famous emperor of this period? 
The Mohammedan bonds of union. The character of Omar. Journey 
of Theodore of Tarsus to England. The court of Charlemagne. Why 
should Charlemagne become the hero of western Europe? Compare 
Omar and Haroun-al-Raschid. 



84 STUDIES IN GENEEAL HISTOEY. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY, 814-1880. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Before the ninth centuiy, the centre of political interest lay 
at Rome or Constantinople ; but with the death of Charlemagne, 
the power of Rome began to fade, political interest began to 
gather about various national centres and national heroes, and 
the modern states of Europe began to appear in undefined and 
nascent forms. Within two centuries, France, England, Ger- 
many, Spain, and Italy were known and feared as powers. 
From that time on, the history of Europe has presented a 
complex, continuous development along original lines, quite 
different from those of antiquity. For this reason, the history 
of more than a thousand years is massed under the single title 
of European as opposed to Greek and Roman history. 

From the beginning through, the teacher should have well in 
mind the great trends and marks of the long and complex 
period. First, then, we have to do with constantly enlarging 
political areas. Cities are no longer the political units of 
history, but countries,^ and countries that grow first to their 
full natural boundaries in Europe, and then begin to possess 
and assimilate the lands of America, Asia, and Africa. Cities 
still exist, not as rulers, but as condensed centres of the popu- 
lation and labor of their various countries. 

Not only are the units larger^ hut they differ in their origin. 
In antiquit3^ the tribe, bound together by the tradition or reality 
of a common descent, was the original unit, which grew by 
successive adoptions of aliens. A gron^i of related men formed 
the historic kernel of the state. From 800 on, a parcel of land 
possessing common interests forms this historic kernel, and 

1 For this distinction I am indebted to Prof. J. R. Seeley. 



EUEOPEAN HISTORY. 85 

gradually draws its inhabitants together into the nation-unit, 
which holds men together by attachment to a common father- 
land, as of old they were held together by attachment to a com- 
mon ancestor. 

A third point to be noted is tJie development of this unit. 
This parcel of land, held at first by many nobles, under the 
nominal lead of a king, is, during the mediaeval period, the 
cause of long and hard contention between its rival claimants. 
In the age of the Renaissance, this contention culminates in 
the formation of strong, centralized monarchies in France, 
England, and Spain ; while in Germany and Italy, a multitude 
of strong cities and rival princes rise, weakening their country 
in behalf of their separate individualities. In the modern 
period, both phases have given place in various ways to 
strong, united nations, tending more and more to popular 
constitutions, with a growing tendency to make the state the 
agent of all common service, in government, education, trans- 
portation, and even in more radical waj^s. 

The fourth and last point to be held in mind is that, along 
with this development of individual nations, has gone the 
development of a European commonivealth. By the constantly 
increasing complex of international relations, weaving together 
inextricabl}' the interests of neighboring states, a Christianized, 
European, Aryan unit has been formed as against less civilized 
continents, held b}' other faiths and peoples. 

These four points all relate to the political development 
of Europe; I have not thought it necessary to call special 
attention to the other marked tendencies of the whole period, 
such as the growth of knowledge and free thought, the devel- 
opment of a popular material civilization, the acquisition of 
freedom in various forms ; for while these movements are of 
the highest importance, they are easy to see and simple to 
understand. 



86 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 



A. EAELT MEDIiEVAL PERIOD. —OHAELEMAGNE TO THE 

OEUSADES, 814-1095. 

The studies from p. 291 to p. 318 inclusive may be summa- 
rized as follows : — 

THE CIVILIZED WORLD, 814-1095. 

Organizations of Period. 

Feudal miits (fiefs), — 

bound together by- 
loyalty. 

interest. 

possession of and residence on common land, 
forming weak monarchies in 

France. 

England. 

Spain. 

Italy and Germany. 
Holy Roman Empire, — 

temporal, imperial powers embodied in emperor, 
spiritual, sacerdotal powers embodied in pope. 
Oriental despotisms in 

Byzantine Empire, 
caliphates. 

Characteristics of Period. 

In feudal monarchies. 

Land, basis of power, seen in 

change of law from personal to territorial, 
service of the inferior dependent on land-grants 

from the superior, 
theory that king is the land-owner of kingdom, 
government co-extensive with estates. 
Growth of landed aristocracy,^ with strong class-distinc- 
tions (great inequality) . 

^ Curiously enough, this aristocracy has survived in its purest feudal 
form in England, where it was at first constitutionally most subject to the 
king (from 1066 onward). 



i 



EARLY JMEDI.EVAL PERIOD. 87 

Decentralization of power, 
seen in 

wars of feudal lords against kings, 
control of kings by feudal lords, 
numerous feudal units, 
resulting in 

constant petty warfare (" Truce of God"), 
Partial, arbitrary, and conflicting law.^ 
Insecurity of trade. 
Loss of individual liberty. 
In Holy Roman Empire. 

Weakness of imperialism (no land). 

Power based on religious faith (see imperial style and title). 

Centralization of power in hands of pope, culminating in 

Hildehrand. 
Closer definition of German frontier, caused by invasion 

and threatened invasion. 
In Islam. 

Development of extravagant Oriental courts and mon- 
archies. 

Growth of a scientific, material civilization, based on 
Oriental and Greek culture. 

Formation of new Mohammedan powers, — 

Turkey in Asia. 

Egypt. 
In England. 

lloyal power strengthened by 

constant foreign invasion, uniting king and barons 

and people into a nation. 

"immediate" oaths demanded by William the 

Conqueror. 2 

Growth of English independence of continent seen in 

literature (English). 

1 Hence it often happened that in order to gain justice from a power- 
ful baron, it was absolutely necessary to employ force against him, since 
there was no executive strong enough to compel men to obey any general 
law, even were such a law in existence. 

" Before the time of William the Conqueror, the thanes seem to have 
had more constitutional power of interfering with general politics than the 
French barons. This power they seem to have retained while tlie "imme- 
diate " oaths demanded by William deprived them of absolute independence. 



88 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

The Civilized World, 814-1095. — Continued, 
In general. 

Great confusion 

arising from 

barbarian invasions and attacks from 
Northmen in 

Sicily, Italy. 
France, England. 
Turks and Hungarians in 

Holy Roman Empire. 
Byzantine Empire. 
Islam, 
feudalism, 
causing 

insecurity of trade, 
insecurity of travel (pilgrims) . 
little intellectual and artistic life, 
mixture of barbarism and civilization. 

Formation of new states and powers, — 

Hungary, Normandy, Austria, Prussia,^ Kingdom 

of Two Sicilies, in Europe. 
Turkey 2 in Asia. 

General mixture of European blood, — 

in France : Roman, Kelt,^ Frank, Norman. 

in England; Kelt, Saxon, Norman. 

in Italy: Roman, Kelt, Greek, Lombard, Norman, 

Arab, 
in Spain : Kelt, Roman, Goth, Arab. 

1 I have asked what would account for the long succession of strong 
rulers in these two states ; may not the answer he found in the fact that 
the founders of the Houses of Austria and Brandenburg were necessarily 
the picked men of their whole generation for vigorous physique and 
positive character 1 

2 Compare the entrance of the Turks into Islam with that of the Teu- 
tons into the Empire. In both cases the conquerors were, in turn, subdued 
by the faith and culture of their subjects. 

3 It should here be noted that previous to the Roman conquests the 
Kelts were the leading people in France, Spain, and England, while they 
had a strong hold on the best part of Italy. 



EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 89 

Complete separation of East and West,i — 

in government : " Holy Roman Empire." 
in religion : ^^ Schism of the Church." 
Traces of Greek influence in West, seen in 
literature (John Scotus). 
architecture (St. Mark's). 
The church strongest power in Europe, — 
because of 

unity of government (strong papacy) . 

unity of language (Latin). 

unity of faith (new barbarian kingdoms, 

Christian), 
possession of civilization, — 
literature, art. 
law, industries, 
hold on the minds of men through fear of 
excommunication, .•. 
eternal damnation, 
democratic spirit and organization 
seen in 

relation to temporal powers (see titles of 

emperor and kings), 
assumption of military and governmental 
powers (see " Truce of God " and call to 
the crusades), 
prevalent impulse to pilgrimage. 
Traces of secularization, seen in 

tendencies of clergy to worldly pleasures and 

occupations, 
secular developments in literature, history, poetry, 

philosophy, etc. 
influence in temporal affairs. 

1 This separation was inevitable from the first ; differences in language, 
culture, thought, style, had long been preparing the way for differences in 
faith and worship ; and when at last this difference became pronounced, 
and the " Holy Roman Empire " an established fact, no bond of union any 
longer existed between the parts of the Empire, and they broke apart as 
naturally as the ripe fruit falls. No effort on the part of pope or emperor 
or patriarch could any longer sustain even the name of union. 



90 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

The Civilized World, 814-1095. — Continued^ 

Tendency to revolt against the church, — 

in government (Investiture quarrels), 
in thought (John Scotus).^ 
Spirit of church, — 
humane, 
democratic (offices open to all classes ; see Hilde- 

brand). 
intolerant of heresy (requiring unity), 
reformatory, ^ — 

restoration of asceticism, 
celibacy of clergy required. 

The teacher cannot be too careful to have his pupils thor- 
oughh- understand the feudal organization, since it is the great 
secular foundation of European society and politics from the 
days of Charlemagne onward, and owXy began to lose its hold in 
the latter part of the seventeenth century. Its central fact was 
this, the union of 2)oUtical, military, and legal x>oiver ivith the 
otvyiershij) of land; the land-owner was the Ismd-lord. In theory, 
the king was landlord over all. In need of men and money, he 
delegated his lands, and with them his powers to subordinate 
holders, who paid again by the use of land for service of body 
and purse. The possession of land was the measure of military 
and financial power; at once, then, we see the cause of the 
weakness of the earl}' mediaeval king as against a combination 
of two or three strong barons ; we understand how the emperor, 

1 Although both Anselm and Scotus both "wished to found theology on 
sound reason, yet when the two were in conflict, Anselm taught that reason 
should yield to authority, while the bolder spirit of Scotus announced that 
authority itself was "derived from reason." The letter from the pope 
concerning Erigena (p. 313) is interesting, as showing how thoroughly the 
former felt responsible for the purity of the faith, and therefore claimed 
the right to regulate European thought. 

2 Of course this spirit was only felt by the strongest and best, and cul- 
minated in Hildebrand, whose measures were the logical outcome of his 
fiodire to save the church from the cares and burdens and pleasures of the 
world, in order that it might more effectually rule and lielp the world. 



EARLY MEDIEVAL PEIMOD. 91 

gaining his title as a successor of the old Roman emperors, 
whose power was supported b}- taxation, found himself in pos- 
session of the name of ruler alone ; for the feudal theory 
expected a sovereign "to live from his own,'' namely, lead his 
own vassals to war, and gain support from his own domains. 
The emperor, then, as emperor, had only such recognition as the 
temper and belief of the period might accord. From this point 
of view, we understand how important the question of investi- 
ture was to Henry lY., and how the emperor could only pre- 
serve imperial power in those countries where he was also king, 
in Germany and Italy, while France was practically lost to the 
Empire when she became an independent kingdom. 

As for the effects of feudalism on libert}', equalit}^, peace, 
and unity, he who runs may read ; the effect on manners is 
more questionable. Guizot, in his History of Civilization, con- 
siders it good ; but Ordericus Vitalis hardlj' encourages such an 
opinion for this age ; during this period it is not safe, perhaps, 
to say much more than that class distinctions produce class 
manners, and that in a society of superiors and inferiors, for- 
malities will necessarily arise, with tendencies to condescension 
on one side and servility on the other. 

I have not called special attention in my Students' Edition to 
the resemblances between the Teutonic warrior band and the 
feudal unit ; the feudal lord is the chosen chief, his superior vas- 
sals are his bravest companions, who still are bound together by 
a common loyalty and a still stronger common interest, but whom 
he now rewards, not, as in Caesar's day, with spear and steed, 
but with permanent titles to land. In the feudal courts, again, 
we see the mark-moot, but with the all-important modification, 
that the war-loader has become a political and legal ruler, and 
thus destroys the village democracy ; while in the feudal code of 
justice we find each man still his own defender and avenger. 
The teacher, however, must act his own judgment as to how far 
he should discuss the origin of feudalism, since the facts on 
which any theory can be built are fragmentary. 

The extract given from Byrhtnoth's Death (p. 310) illustrates 



92 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

primitive feudalism perhaps at its best. Here we see England 
invaded bj' a Danish warrior band, evidently attracted thither 
by the comparative wealth of the land, now long settled by an 
agricultural people. Against them is arrayed the feudal unit,^ 
led b}' Byrthnoth, who adds to sure confidence in the Christian 
faith, an English courage and determination to protect and keep 
his own. Nor are his followers unworthy of their chief ; when 
he is slain, they fight on as before, undismayed, while the very 
soul of bravery speaks in Byrhtwold's noble words, " Courage 
should be the greater, the more our forces lessen." 

Although the imperial power was inferior to the royal, from 
the feudal point of view, still the emperor held the power of the 
Roman name, a name which yet stood for the mightiest empire 
men had known, and for the language, law, and learning of the 
West; again, he held the power of the Christian name, and as 
"Protector of the Catholic Faith" could demand the service 
and homage of all Christian men. In this latter regard, how- 
ever, he was the inferior of the pope, who was proved to be the 
strongest force in the Empire b}' the bitter strife of Hildebrand 
and Henry. How thoroughly the Empire was regarded as a sort 
of "church militant" is shown by the imperial title, which 
clearly marks the imperial office as that of a general of the 
faith, and by the fact that new peoples could only enter the 
Empire by acknowledging themselves the subjects of the church.^ 
While the church claimed a peculiar right to the imperial ser- 
vice, still in the call to the crusades the popes claimed a right 
to the arms of all Christendom in defense of the Christian faith, 
a claim which was not denied though often neglected. In fact, 
the boundar}' of civilized Europe was one with the boundary of 
Christian Europe. Throughout Europe the church was still the 

1 Note the traces of Teutonic organization in this unit ; the loyalty to a 
loved chief; the kinship bond ; the duty of vengeance. 

2 Compare the case of Normans in France, who were, like the Hungari- 
ans, allowed to settle on condition of accepting Christianity. The weak- 
ness of civihzed Europe is indicated by the fact that in both cases the 
invaders seize and hold most desirable territory. 



EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 93 

prime civilizer ; the monasteries were still the centres of learn- 
ing and autiiorship ; Gerbert gave an impulse to science and 
mechanical industry ; the archbishops taught and advised the 
monarchs ; as new peoples were assimilated, they were per- 
suaded to the habits as well as the creed of Christianity; thus 
in Bulgaria we see the church opposing pol3^gam3', superstition, 
and cruelty. 

Although there is little that is striking in the intellectual life 
of this age, there is much that is significant, since tendencies 
then began which culminated onl3- in the Renaissance ; the 
Greek influence entered the West ; the courts of England and 
France became intellectual centres ; in England, France, and 
Spain national subjects or national languages appeared in liter- 
ature, and Italy already began to gain artistic and scientific 
leadership. Europe, however, was still too harassed by inva- 
sion, too confused by feudalism, to permit of great results in 
scholarship or thought ; her greatest names were still of warlike 
kings and chiefs, among whom the Normans appeared pre- 
eminent. 

Attention should be called to the fact that the Moorish civili- 
zation, which cuhninated in this age, was developed along lines 
marked out from the first. The Arabs were the latest heirs of 
the wisdom of the East as modified by the Alexandrian influ- 
ences ; they were the mediaeval authorities in astronomy, 
medicine, mathematics, and the Aristotelian philosophy ; but 
their authorities were confessedly Ptolemy, Galen, Hippocrates, 
Euclid, and Aristotle. 

It is of the greatest interest to note how, in St. Mark's and 
the Ducal Palace all influences built themselves in marble ; 
Greek and Oriental columns, Roman and Gothic arches. Orien- 
tal domes, Moorish ornament and color, all combined into a 
new beauty, neither Gothic, classic, nor Oriental, but Venetian, 
a beauty rich in detail and daring in cosmopolitan combination. 

Suggestions f or Bssay and Examination "Work. — The political 
power of a belief or myth, as illustrated by the " Holy Roman Em- 
pire." The " Marches " of the Empire. Of what use was the short- 



94 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOEY. 

lived empire of Charlemagne ? The influence of foreign invasion or 
attack upon internal unity, as illustrated in the English and German 
history of this age. How a baron spent the day, 900 a.d. Same of a 
serf; a bishop; a king. AVhat were the elements of Otto's power? 
What progress has been made by the barbarians during this age? 
The losses of Constantinople. Alfred the Great and Charlemagne. 
The Xorman war-chiefs. 'A group at Charlemagne's court. What 
characters of the period had lives that deserve the term "romantic"? 
Life in Normandy, 1000 a.d. The nobility of the age. Journal of 
Greek sent on an embassy to Bagdad. Gerbert in Spain. 



B. STUDY 0¥ OEUSADING PEEIOD. 

This study should be opened by a class conversation along 
the lines indicated by the questions on p. 318. The word 
" divisions," in the first of these questions, refers to the feudal 
divisions indicated on the map, and named in the key, in the 
upper left-hand corner ; the most casual glance at them will 
show how feudalism had cut Western Europe into many 
petty little states, without specially natural boundaries ; nor 
will the teacher, perhaps, find a more suitable time than this in 
which to call attention to the natural boundaries of the various 
European states, and to the fact that countries like England, 
Spain, Italy, and France, become more quickly consolidated 
and defined than countries like Germany, which has no well- 
defined natural barrier eastward, and so must depend the more 
on fortresses and arms. 

If the teacher find himself behindhand with his work, but has 
been thorough with the preceding period, he may pass over this 
study very sketchily and hastily, since much of the work consists 
in the application to new circumstances of tendencies and organ- 
izations with which the student is already familiar. But enough 
attention must be given so that the relation of the crusades to 
the earlier and later mediaeval period maj^ not be missed. As 
the Persian wars were to Greece, and the Punic wars to Rome, 



STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 95 

SO were the crusades to mediaeval Europe, — an enlarging, enliv- 
ening movement, which brought young peoples into contact with 
ancient civilizations. 

Throughout his study the student should be encouraged to 
summarize his own results as far as possible. But this sort of 
work is rather difficult, and, with most classes, the teacher will 
find it well to watch his opportunity to give practice on easily 
classified material, such as the crusades furnish. He maj- ask 
his pupils to tabulate their work on the crusades, under the 
following heads : Comparison of Antagonists, Causes and 
Motives, Leaders and Instigators, Routes, Leading Events, 
Eesults, Uses and Effects. The results reached by the study 
on the whole period, however, will need a longer and more 
complex summary ; the following may serve as a guide : — 

CRUSADING PERIOD. 

Ne-w Organizations and S1;ates formed. 

"Orders of knighthood. ^ 
Latin ^ kingdoms of East, — 

Jerusalem. 

Edessa. 
Latin ^ Empire of Constantinople. 
Lombard League (of Italian cities).^ 

Relative Conditions of Various European Povtrers. 

Papal and ecclesiastical power strengthening, seen in 
leadership and direction of crusades.* 
delegation of temporal power to ecclesiastics by crusa- 
ders. 

1 Those points marked " a " are expected to be obtained from the mate- 
rial, pp. 325-329. 

2 The use of this adjective "Latin'' in connection with these new Eastern 
states is an incidental proof of the way in which the men of the West 
were still regarded as belonging to the Latin half of the Eoman Empire. 

^ Notable as the first important example of these city-leagues, so influ- 
ential in the later mediasval history of the Empire. 

* This leadership gave the pope, for the time being, command of new 
material forces of men and money. 



96 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Crusading Period. — Continued. 

" Concordat of Worms," and other papal victories in 

Germany, 
interference in temporal affairs, as in 
conquest of Ireland. 

quarrel of John of England with his barons, 
"continued monopoly of art and literature. 
Imperial power weakening, seen in 
" Concordat of Worms." 
new and successful opposition of cities, — 
Italy. 
Germany, 
battle of Bouvines. 
E,oyal power strengthening in France, ^ through 

union of king and people against barons (note Bouvines). 
acquisition of new land by king.^ 
Development of municipal power, seen in 

successful strife of cities with emperor, 
burgher victory of Bouvines. 

Characteristics of Age. 

French leadership in crusades.* 

Uneasiness under papal and ecclesiastical rule, seen in 

strife of Guelph and Ghibelin. 

attempt of Arnold of Brescia. 

1 The royal power was also growing stronger in England, but not so 
evidently, since what had been gained against the pope and barons by 
preceding kings, was temporarily lost by John. 

2 Normandy would, in any case, have finally come to France, to which 
it naturally belonged, both by geographical position, and by unity of 
speech and general civilization. 

* The Frencli became the natural leaders of the crusades, because 
there was no serious disaffection in France against the pope, such as had 
been developed in Germany by the investiture quarrels ; moreover, the 
French were the oldest and most^ securely Christianized people of the 
West, not even excepting Italy, since the Normans in the South, and the 
Lombards in the North, were later acquisitions to the faith than the war- 
riors of Clovis. The fact of their predominance in the crusades finds an 
interesting confirmation in the Eastern use of the name " Frank " for all 
Europeans. 



STUDY ON CRUSADING PEEIOD. 97 

investiture quarrels in 

Germany. 

France. 

England, 
heresies of Southern France, — 

Albigenses. 

Waldenses. 
affair of Thomas Beket. 

Gradual loss of crusading energy, 
seen in 

indifferent or irrelevant results of later crusades, 
greater inducements offered to later crusaders (see 

p. 332). 
doubt felt at Antioch. 
caused by 

iU success in East. 

growing acquaintance with dangers and difficul- 
ties of undertaking. 

Constant contact of Greek, Oriental {Moorish) , and Latin 
civilizations. 

"Growth of intellectual energy, 
* centering at 

Paris (Abelard). 
Cordova (Averroes). 
Bologna, 
monasteries, 
"seen in 

widening circle of intellectual interest, — 
theology, 
law. 

medicine, 
philosophy, 
history, 
growth of French as a literary language. 

Tendencies of Crusading. 

To weaken feudalism through 

unredeemed mortgages on feudal land, 

destruction of knights in crusades, .-. 

relative weakness of noble class in numbers, tending 



98 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Crusading Period. — Continued. 
To strengthen 

kings. 

cities. 

church (increasing its property by mortgaged or deeded 
lands of crusaders). 
To create new routes and demands for trade. 
To increase knowledge, — 

geographical. 

commercial and industrial. 

historical. 
To introduce Oriental products and luxuries to the West. 
To increase respect for and value of industrial pursuits and 

artisan class. 

If the teacher choose, he may add still another heading, 
Effects of Crusading ; this, however, can only be filled out 
after the student has done the work on the later mediaeval 
period. (See p. Ill of this manual.) 

On comparing the West and the East at the opening of the 
crusades, it is easy to see that the West was comparatively still 
uncivilized ; in the military art, the siege of Antioch had much 
to teach the crusaders, who were as yet unaccustomed to invest 
walled cities ; in comparing the various captures of Jerusalem 
by Omar, by the first crusaders, and by Saladin, the Moslems 
are seen to be the more humane ; ^ while the impressions of the 
astonished crusaders show how unaccustomed they were to the 
aspect of cultivated lands, and of cities stronglj'-built and 
adorned with the beauties of art. 

From this astonishment the Venetians were exempt, accus- 
tomed as the}^ were to trade eastward ; to them, the crusades 
gave a chance for a great speculation, from which they gained 

1 Some excuse may be found for the crusaders in the general hostility 
of all Christians against the Jews, as being the people at whose hands 
Christ suffered death. It was evidently the belief of many of the first 
crusaders that it was a part of their duty to massacre these unfortunate 
people, wherever found. 



STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 99 

not only new wealth and territory, but also a chance to plunder 
from Constantinople some of those " monuments" whose value 
they understood somewhat better than did their rude compan- 
ions. It is significant of their long trading habits that they fur- 
nished neither men, mone}^, nor ships, " for the love of God," 
without due recompense in pa}^ or booty ; and their bargain 
with the crusaders would show how considerable and wealthy a 
power Venice had already become, even if the rich beauty of 
St. Mark's and the Ducal Palace did not furnish material evi^ 
dence of the fact. 

The whole story of Thomas Beket, to its every detail, is 
very significant of the age; the main facts, given on p. 323, 
show at once the legal and political influence of churchmen, 
and the tendency of the age to revolt against this temporal 
power where it clashed with national government and unity ; 
while in Beket's saintship and Henry's penance we see the 
still predominating hold of the spiritual power of Rome. But, 
strong as the church was growing, developing along the lines 
marked out b}' Gregory, it is significant that the revolts against 
her grew more frequent and daring, although, as j^et, their 
most serious effort was to check her assertion of legal and 
political power. Intellectual revolt was still rare, and when it 
appeared, as in Southern France, was speed ilj' suppressed in the 
interests of that unit}" of belief so essential to the papal power. 

The appeals of Pope Urban, and still more the Papal Bull 
issued for the second crusade, are convincing proof that the 
crusading energy was due in part to other motives than those 
derived from desires to avenge the enslaved, persecuted, or 
murdered pilgrims, save Jerusalem from the infidel, and make 
of Palestine a Christian kingdom. That these motives were 
strong is seen in the enthusiasm with which Urban's appeal to 
them was met ; but they were strengthened by the love of 
adventure, the passion of warfare, the hope of salvation, the 
desire for plunder, the charm of license, and in many cases, 
perhaps, by the power which was given to escape from the bur- 
dens of debt and the legal consequences of crime. On Saladin's 



100 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTOEY. 

side, also, the motives were undoubtedly mixed ; but that they 
had a stroug element of leligious fervor, is clearly to be felt 
from Saladiu's letter (p. 334). 

The power of faith, even when it appears in the form of 
superstition, receives a striking illustration from the story of 
the " Sacred Lance," which, for the time being, served as well 
as if it had had genuine supernatural virtue, inasmuch as it gave 
absolute confidence, and all the strength which such a confi- 
dence inspires, to the weary and doubting crusaders. 

The whole period is marked by no great distinguishing ten- 
dency or characteristic ; it is a time of action in which old forms 
and ideas are tried, while new ones are suggested, — an age at 
once of culmination and of obscure, but originating change. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination "Work. — The geo- 
graphical advantages of England. The geographical disadvantages 
of Poland. Reflections of a Bulgarian upon the crusaders. Journal 
of a follower of Godfrey of Boulogne. The Christianity of Saladin. 
A French crusader's account of the taking of Antioch. Richard the 
Lion-heart, considered as an English king. When was the whole 
Roman Empire under "barbarian" rule? How would a crusader 
have justified the massacre of the Jews? What would be the natural 
relation of Moslems and Jews? What facts given in lists, pp. 325- 
329, prove this relation to have existed? Proofs that the civilization 
of the West was still Roman. 



LATER IVIEDI^VAL PERIOD. 101 



a LATEK MEDI31VAL PEEIOD, 1215-1492. 

The following summary embodies the general results to be 
obtained from the studies on this period : — 

LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 

Organizations of Period. 

Feudal kingdoms growing into centralized national units by 

increase of royal power (consolidation and enlargement 

of royal domains), 
summoning to one place and for one purpose the assem- 
blies of estates, — 
nobles, 
clergy, 
commons, — 

merchants (in England and on the continent), 
landed proprietors outside the noble class (in 
England) . 
formation of national codes, — 
St, Lewis. 
Edward I. 
Alfonso of Castile, 
foreign wars: ex. Spanish wars with Moors, wars of 
English and French. 
The Empire ^ (Italy and Germany) greatly weakened and disin- 
tegrated by 

grants to nobles and clergy, 
strife of Guelph and Ghibelin. 
"great interregnum." 
imperial loss of Poland, 
imperial loss of Sicily, 
formation of Swiss league, 
formation of city leagues against nobles, — 
Hanse. 
Rhine. 

1 The imperial name at this time furnishes an excellent illustration of 
a " digniti/," since it still held the respect of men by its antiquity, associa- 
tions, and traditions, while all its real power was rapidly vanishing. 



102 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Later Medieval Period. — Continued. 

wars and disturbances throughout Germany, 
wars and leagues of Italian cities. 
The church, thoroughly centralized hierarchy, culminating in 
papal office, — 

powerful through 

unit}'^, obtained by 

persecution of heresy (Inquisition), 
censorship of literature, 
independence of secular courts and impe- 
rial election. 1 
wealth (note cathedrals), 
command of military orders, 
command of learning, 
judicial power. 

presence in assemblies of estates (political power). 
privilege and rank (the untaxed second estate^. 
electoral nature of papacy. ^ 
threatened by 

" Schism of the West." 
growing tendency to heresy. 

growing dissatisfaction, most pronounced in Ger- 
many and England, with ecclesiastical govern- 
ment, doctrine, and morality, seen in 
attitude of kings. 
German electors, 
popular literature. 
Lollard movement, 
heresies. 
The guilds, democratic, local, co-operative societies of the third 
estate (merchants and artisans), — 
formed for 

mutual protection and aid. 
advancement of trade, .*. 
favorable to 

morality, peace, public health and cleanliness, 
high standard of workmanship, and 

1 Since tlie papal election was transferred to the College of Cardinals. 

2 The papal office was thus freed from the chances of birth to wliich an 
ordinary monarchy is subject. 



r. 



I/ATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. lOB 

opposed to 

mono^^olies. 

inequality of advantage or opportunity, 
bound together by bonds of 

mutual interest. 

kinship (often) .^ 
The towns, democratic,^ local governments, 
power based on wealth. 
bonds of union, 

common local interests. 

common residence, 
opposed to 

irregular, arbitrary, and outside interference in 
local affairs. 
favoring 

local independence. 

trade. 
Orders of knighthood. 
Their duties, — 

to defend the church \ 

to defend the king v military. 

to defend the weak and defenceless ) 

to hold to the Christian faith 



to be loyal to then- king 



spiritual 



to do justice )■ and 

to be honorable, courteous, brave, social, 
humble, truthful, persevering > 
Characteristics of Period Special to England. 

Prosperity of farming gentry (stock-farmers, raising sheep), 
seen in 

presence in third estate, 
tax on wool. 
Successful establishment of constitution (compare with result 
of constitutional struggle in France), embodied in 

1 The guild privileges were freely open to the sons and daughters of 
guildsmen ; the trades thus became largely hereditary. 

2 Within the body of citizens, democracy was the ruling priusiple ; but 
this body could not be said to include men of what has been called the 
fourth estate. 



104 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Later Medieval. Period. — Continued. 

Great Charter, demanding ^ 

" iSTo taxation without representation." 

jury trial (judgment by peers) . 

*' Habeas corpus " (no delay in justice). 

Characteristics Special to France. 

Strife of king and towns and nobles, ending in 

victory of king over nobles, and accompanied by 
steady enlargement of royal domain.^ 
substitution of king's law for 

trial by battle and arbitrary judgments. 
Close relations with papacy, seen in 
papal offer of Sicily to Anjou. 
removal of papal seat to Avignon. 
Characteristics Special to Spain. 

Superior strength of royalty (large domain). 
Characteristics General through Western Europe. 

Growing prosperity of middle trading-classes, seen in 
formation and powers of third estate, 
formation and powers of guilds, 
buildings and defenses of town ; 
political and military power of towns, evinced in 
Flemish and Parisian revolts. 
wars of Italian towns, 
formation of powerful leagues, 
taxes imposed on third estate (wool-tax in England), 
growing prominence of manufacturing industries. 
Growth of nationalities, displaying itself in differentiation of 
language, history, ^ intellectual interest, and in codifica- 
tion of national law. 

^ These demands indicate the directions in which Englishmen had felt 
oppression. 

2 This enlargement, of course, under the "Old Regime," meant the 
enlargement of the king's resources. Here we see the special reason why 
the desire for territorial possession should be the moving cause of the 
long wars of the French and English kings. 

^ It will be noted that, from the time of the crusades on, the history of 
Europe cannot he treated in the mass, since each country begins its own 
proper development. 



LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 105 

Strife of the nearly balanced powers of towns, kings, nobles, 
popes, resulting in 

multiplicity of defenses,^ — 
castles, 
town walls, 
victories of towns and princes in 

Germany and Italy. 
royal victory in France, 
general instability and insecurity. 

Growth of popular 2 liberty (as a purpose or a fact), 
seen in 

growth of electoral principle in 
towns, 
guilds. 

College of Cardinals, 
electors of Empire, 
attempts at political independence or liberty, — 
Cola di Rienzi. 
Marcel, 
demands of estates 

in England, France, and Spain, 
increase of local freedom (towns), 
participation of all classes in literary and artistic 
movements. 
favored by 

needs of kings for money from the third estate, 
growing intelligence of people. 

Social uneasiness and agitation among those of the lowest class 
(fourth estate), 
seen in 

Jacquerie. 

Wat Tyler's revolt. 

Hussite War. 



1 Compare with the standing armies of the nearly balanced powers of 
Europe to-day. 

^ It must, however, be remembered that the word "popular" does not 
apply to men below the station of the third estate. 



106 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOEY. 

Later Medieval Period. — Continued. 

Intellectual and artistic activity among all classes.^ 
seen in 

( poetry ^ 
literature < history V , Italy and England leading. 
( travels ) 

theology and philosophy, France leading. 

science, Italy leading, — 
confused, 
undifferentiated, 
aiming at 

prolonging life and renewing youth. 

changing other metals to gold. 

foretelling the future. 

laying foundations for 

chemistry ) ^ , i s 

-^ y (alchemy), 
mineralogy ) 

astronomy (astrology). 

painting and sculpture (led by Italy and Ger- 
many), — 

original ^ in subject (Biblical), 
architecture (led by France and Germany), — 
original 

in structure (pointed arch, GoiJiic). 
in decoration (stained glass). 
• influenced by 

Greek, Roman, and Moorish forms. 

learning (universities), Italy and France leading, 
heresies, 
inventions, 
patronized by 
church, 
princes, and 
wealthy merchants. 

1 Here, as in poHtical life, " all classes " refers to the three estates, the 
lowest class not yet appearing as an intellectual or social element in the 
state. 

2 Following out the lines indicated by the early church. 



i 



LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 107 

influenced by 

Moors, in science, philosophy, and art. 

Greeks, in science, philosophy, and art. 

Romans, in law and literature. 
rendered influential and general by 

printing and engraving. 

comforts and contrivances for giving men leisure, 
comfort, and quiet. 
characterized by 

European interchange of thought and knowledge. 

versatility and variety. 
Organization, — of tendencies, occupations, classes; of 
chivalry in knighthood, 
faith in new monastic orders, 
learning in universities, 
trades in guilds, 
classes and occupations in estates, — 

nobles. 

clergy. 

third estate. 
Centralization, — of feudalism in kings, of the church in 

papacy, of third estate in town organizations. 
Growth of new ideals, — 
the knight, 
the " Doctor." 
the wealthy merchant. 
the author and artist. 

It should be thoroughly understood that the assemblies of 
estates were quite different from our modern legislative bodies. 
The interests they represented were those of classes, not of the 
whole people ; they were called together at the will of the mon- 
arch, and primarily in his interest, either because he wished 
their advice, their moral support, or their money. Naturally, 
then, they were composed of the rich, influential, and intelli- 
gent classes, and included the third estate, not as a matter of 
justice, but because this estate contained the wealthy merchants, 
and could bring to the royal service a heavy purse. Originat- 
ing thus in the needs of the monarchs, the estates, especially the 



108 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

comraons, found a means of enforcing attention to their claims, 
and of winniug new privilege and political importance. In 
other words, the king often found himself obliged to buy their 
aid ; thus, in England, he paid for it by charters, favors, and 
promises, tending to give wider liberties and juster govern- 
ment ; in France, the history was the same, but there the king's 
strength finally proved superior to that of the estates ; and 
thus, while in England, Magna Charta laid the foundation of 
constitutional government, in France the equally wise demands 
of Marcel and the Parisians ended in the triumph of royalty. 

To the modern student, the subject of guilds is of especial 
interest, since it was the mediaeval solution of the ' ' labor prob- 
lem," and a solution not merely successful, but brilliant. Their 
study is at once so easy and so suggestive, that the teacher will 
find in it an admirable place for much conversational work, such 
as would grow out of the question as to the value to the guilds- 
men of moralit}", peace, public health, and cleanliness. In 
talking this over, the teacher should be careful to keep in mind 
the tradesman's point of view ; for each of these conditions 
had its own special value to the trader and artisan, as ensuring 
him quiet and favorable conditions for work, while at the same 
time they rendered his place of labor or residence secure and 
attractive to the bu3^er. For the same reasons we find that, in 
the assemblies of estates, the third estate always inclined to 
vote for peace rather than war. 

The most vital point of the guild organizations was this : 
they ivere built upon the principle of co-operative instead of 
upon that of competitive industry. All the men of the same 
calling within the same town-walls, worked together for a 
common good, inspired by common interests, and by a common 
pride in the honor and excellence of the guild. Thus, in their 
relation to the outer world, the}' may be described as monopo- 
lists of labor, since no man could successfully follow any busi- 
ness outside the ranks of a guild ; within those ranks, however, 
monopoly, and even a disproportionate command of men and 
other means of labor, were strictly prevented. 



LATER MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 109 

The power of the guilds evidently underlay that of the towns, 
those great mediaeval fortresses of labor, whose increasing re- 
sources caused the comparative decline of the noble class, and 
acted as a check on needy kings, who were glad to buy the 
right of taxation with charters of liberty. These charters 
plainly show that the towns had suffered much from the arbi- 
trary judgments and irregular interference of kings and nobles, 
and that liberty meant to them the power to judge and manage 
in regard to their own local affairs. Hence we see why the 
towns always favored the power of kings rather than that of 
nobles, since the former at least represented a central, stan- 
dard authority. 

The success of the trading-class, and the quickening of popu- 
lar thought, could hardly fail to rouse the consciousness of the 
great " fourth estate," composed of untrained laborers. This 
class, both in England and in France, now first urged its way 
into notice by bloody, unintelligent, and ineff'ective revolt. 
There is an indication that this class was more intelligent in 
England than in France, in the fact that Wat Tyler and his 
followers appealed to the king as the fountain of justice, while 
the " Jacquerie " was a blind protest made in fire and murder ; 
this, of course, is but conjecture, and I have called attention 
to the point chiefly for the sake of making the student realize 
the difference between an indication and a proof. But while 
revolt accomplished nothing for the poorest class of all, the 
"Black Death" did much to free man from the soil, and 
change the serf into a wage laborer.^ At a moderate calcula- 
tion, a third of the people perished by this plague ; in conse- 
quence, labor was so scarce, that the surviving laborers were 
able to enforce their demands for money payments, or for 
higher wages. This movement is, however, important to 

1 The slave could be bought and sold at the will of his masters ; the 
serf could only be bought or sold with the land which he cultivated, and 
the home where he lived ; the wage laborer is bound neither to a man nor 
a field, but sells his labor as freely as the circumstances of the market 
permit. 



110 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

notice, as a beginning of the long agitations of the laboring 
classes, rather than as a strong mark of this period. 

Woven throughout the texture of European society, the eccle- 
siastical power saw itself threatened with dismemberment, as 
distinct nationalities began to gather about new centres, and 
Rome began to be forgotten as the common mother. The unity of 
the church, and its traditional relations to the temporal powers, 
was diametrically opposed to the formation of independent 
kingdoms within the body of Christendom ; this, as well as the 
legal power of the church, and the ecclesiastical control of 
large amounts of land, threatened the peace and unity of 
states. Thus the inevitable conflict of the temporal with the 
spiritual power approached, and most rapidly in Germany, 
where the conflicting claims of poj^e and emperor had already 
caused centuries of conflict and confusion. 

The whole period is marked by the strife of nearly balanced 
powers ; but classes, rather than nations, were the opposing 
forces ; the noble checked the king, and the town checked both, 
while obscure but significant movements were felt in still lower 
strata. 

If "number is qualit}"," then these centuries should rank 
high in human history for their great number of famous men. 
Not only is the list a long, but a varied one, and in this regard 
it contrasts curiously with the lists of the Christian Empire 
and the early mediaeval period, which belong to a one-sided 
development correspondingly intense. Men were now trained 
for achievement not only in the cloister, but in the camp, the 
court, the workshop, and the studio ; and it is interesting to 
note that, perhaps without exception, the training had a direct 
relation to the man's life-work. 

Even before the invention of printing, the increasing wealth 
and culture of laymen is evidenced by the production of a 
great secular literature in tlie various national tongues of 
Europe ; the subjects of this literature reflect the learning, the 
thought, the feeling of the age ; and such a list as that of 
Caxton's first editions is an admirable index to the intellectual 



LATER MEDIEVAL PEEIOD. Ill 

life of the time, since it gives a practical gauge of literary 
popularity. 

This period is so alive and complete, so full of old powers 
waning and new ones waxing, that it is perhaps impossible to 
sa}'-, with any certain t}', just what part of its new life Europe 
owed to the crusades ; it is easy to reason out relations be- 
tween these movements and the new impulses in science, art, 
and trade ; but such reasoning must always be tempered by 
the memor}^ of the Moors in Spain, and of the close relations 
of the East with Venice and the other great Italian marts. 

In the study on p. 378, I have tried to show in some detail 
how pictures may be used in the study of history. 

In a, 5, c, d, we see an architecture quite different from that 
of Greece, or Rome, or the East ; the spire, the pointed arch, 
the tower, have succeeded the pillar, the rounded arch, and the 
dome ; the basis of decoration is found in the openings of the 
walls, in the windows and doors ; stained glass has become an 
important material in decorative art, while its subjects are drawn 
from Christian scripture and tradition ; in the portal (c) the 
forms emploj'ed are again the forms of human beings, as in the 
Greek temple, but the forms are now of saints, and not of 
athletes. And yet throughout we see the influence of the 
earlier civilizations ; the Greek pillar, the Roman arch, the 
Moorish ornament, are all present, but modified and subordi- 
nated by a new spirit, expressing itself in an architecture 
essentially new. The most Gothic of these four pictures, the 
most purely original to this period, is, perhaps, c ; and yet even 
there the presence of some little Greek pillars, used as part of 
the decoration, betrays the ineffaceable influence. As for the 
beauties of a, &, c, and d, every one must judge for himself; 
such structures at least proclaim the v,^ealth of the church, and 
its close relation with and command over the artistic resource 
of the age. 

The castles, as well as the cathedrals, bear their witness. 
Comparing e and / with Fountains Hall, p. 413, we realize at 
once that the world liad suffered change between the days when 



112 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

a noble bnilt his castle on a forbidding height, surrounded it by 
inhospitable moats, challenged all comers before giving them 
the narrow passage of the drawbridge, shut himself within 
thick walls, peeped suspiciously at the outside world through 
high and narrow slits, kept guard and watch on his castle 
towers, — and the days when this same knight made himself a 
pleasant house in the open country, with generous doors and 
windows, and surrounded it with the attractions of wood and 
field and garden ; the castle was the necessary product of an 
ase when each man stood on his own defence, while Fountains 
Hall was built in an age of kings, when the feudal quarrels 
had been suppressed, and the military resources of the country 
were massed in a single hand, thus rendered strong enough to 
keep the peace, and enable men to live more freely and care- 
lessly than before. 

The third estate, meanwhile, is represented by such noble 
guild-halls as that of Ypres, p. 377, which, were it our only 
evidence, would tell us of the wealth, importance, and taste of 
the merchant class, besides giving us a very good list of the in- 
dustries of the age. 

The study of laws often tells us quite as much of injustice 
as of justice ; that is, a law generally tells us of some unjust 
or unfortunate state of affairs which it was intended to obviate. 
Thus, Magna Charta clearly indicates that the English king 
had made excessive and arbitrary demands for money, had 
seized men's property for his own use, had over-ridden the 
ancient liberties of the towns, had sold and delayed justice ; 
that the nobles had unreasonably oppressed their retainers for 
more than the customary feudal dues ; that no man was safe 
from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, and that men were 
often condemned without a fair hearing. Magna Charta is 
sometimes represented as the work of the great nobles, but that 
it equally represented the third estate of free, untitled men, is 
proved by articles 20, 46, 48, p. 379. In the parallel French 
demands (p. 381) we see also the union of the nobles and com- 
mons against the arbitrary power of the king. 



LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 113 

In extracts h and d, pp. 380, 381, we see the royal power 
evidently directed to quell the power and violence of the nobles, 
and for this purpose allying itself with the commons of the 
realm ; while e, p. 382, shows the result of this struggle in 
establishing a monarch}' possessing unchecked control over the 
composition of the army and the raising of the taxes, and thus 
enabled to become a genuine absolutism. Thus, while England 
advances in political civilization, and finds herself possessed of 
advanced constitutional principles, tending to work themselves 
out in practical forms, France finds herself retrograding toward 
the simpler form of absolute monarchy. 

The laws on p. 383 are rather indicative of social than politi- 
cal conditions ; we see a state dependent for defense on the 
arms of its free citizens, acting as volunteers ; a country still 
insecure, Uncleared, and full of disorder ; a city where all politi- 
cal power is in the hands of traders, while two of these ordi- 
nances throw a curious light on the sincere interest and belief 
of the age in the experiments of alchemy. 

The literature of this period indicates clearly enough that its 
wrongs and abuses sprang chiefly from two classes, the aristo- 
cratic and the clerical; the nobles were the oppressors, — the 
monks, the scandals of the age ; the arbitrary, petty wars, the 
confused and unequal laws, which had' their origin among the 
former, the extravagance, luxury, and immorality of the latter, 
called forth much complaint and invective, humorously voiced 
by Chaucer, but sternly by Dante, whose feeling was intensified 
by his identification with the Ghibelins^ in the long mediaeval 
strife of papal and imperial powers. 

Chaucer gives us the picture and the temper of the later 
mediaeval period, while Dante gives us its serious feeling and 
thought. In the extracts, pp. 386-388, the condition of the 
Holy Roman Empire is vividly set forth. We see at once that, 
in Dante's mind, the ancient union still existed ; but that its 
ruinous condition was attributed to the imperial neglect of Italy 
and the seizure of the temporal power b}' Home. 

1 In bis youth Dante had been a Guelph. 



114 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOEY. 

In the extracts from Chaucer we see how thoroughly the early 
mediaival saint ideal of the church had given wa}^ to desires 
for politeness, cultui-e, pleasure, and luxury ; while the warrior 
ideal of the Teuton has softened to the "very perfect, gentle 
knight," in fact, to the ideal ^'•gentleman'' and the gay young 
squire, thoroughlj- trained for the graceful accomplishments of 
the court, as well as the strenuous duties of the field. ^ 

If the teacher himself regard this age a "dark" one, he 
may find means of impressing this opinion on the minds of his 
pupils ; to my own view, it appears as one of the most rapidly- 
moving and important of historical epochs. "While England 
led in politics, Italy in art, and France in courtesy and mate- 
rial elegance, still the whole of Europe " marched," its various 
states essentially abreast. 

Suggestions for Examination and Essay "Work. — The guild 
and the trades-union ; tlieir resemblances and differences. The assem- 
blies of estates and modern representative chambers. Review the 
development of papacy. The town aristocrats. Why should the 
trading classes desire the suppression of the nobility? AVhat were 
the great historic sources of the civilization of this period. Why 
should the houses in Euro]3ean towns, dating back to the fourteenth 
and fifteenth centuries, be so built that the people must live in the 
second and third stories ; and why should the streets of those same 
towns be so narrow? What reasons would a man living in the 
fifteenth century have for thinking the ruin of Europe near? What 
reasonable grounds might he see for improvement? Journal of a 
Parisian merchant living in the first half of the fifteenth century. 
Same of a French noble. Same of an English wool-grower for latter 
half of the same century. The advantages of kings to trade. Wiclif 
and St. Francis of Assisi compared as reformers. The debt of the 
later mediaeval period to Eome. To Greece and the Orient. The 
secularization of the church. A day in the castle of Pierrefond. 
"Piper's day" at castle St. Ulric. The mediaeval versus the Greek 
beauty. 

1 Compare the list of the squire's accomphshments with the list now 
required for an "accomplished" young lady. In both cases the education 
is a social one. 



REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 115 



D. EEFOEMATION AND EENAISSANOE EEA. 

The general results of the studies iu this period may be thus 
summarized : — 

REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE, 1492-1648. 

Great Movements and Achievements of the Time. 

Geographical discovery, — 

eastward, led by Portugal, 
westward, led by Spain, 
caused by 

desire to discover routes to India, 
desire to gain new landed possessions, 
resulting in 

circumnavigation of Africa, 
foundation of European colonies in India, 
discovery and settlement of America, 
development of maritime powers, — ^ 

Holland. 

Spain. 

Portugal. 

England. 

France, 
great increase of commercial activity, 
change of commercial centre from Mediterranean 

to Atlantic,^ .•. 
decay of Italian commerce. 

1 Note that Spain held as strong a command over all the westward com- 
merce of the Mediterranean as Constantinople over that of the Black Sea ; 
this, combined with her own free access to transatlantic shores, made her 
one of the leaders of the new commerce. Without this command, France, 
Portugal, England, and Holland had the freedom of access ; and in the 
case of Holland, her connection with Spain during the period of discovery 
very probably gave her her first commercial experience and impulse, 
strengthened by her own half-maritime life and the poverty of her inter- 
nal resources. 

2 The opening of the Suez Canal in our own time may tend to restore 
the commercial activity of the Mediterranean lands. 



116 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Reformation and Renaissance. — Continued. 
Revolt against the church, 
caused or favored by 

intellectual dissent from her doctrines 

(England and Europe in general), 
desire of monarchs for entire independence 

(England), 
disapproval of her methods and morals 

(Germany and Europe in general), 
internal corruption, — 

avarice. 

luxury. 

immorality. 

ignorance, 
mediaeval quarrels of church and state ? p_„ 
independence of Teutonic character > 
resulting in 

formation of national churches, 
formation of various Protestant sects, 
internal reform (the Jesuit movement). 

Production of masterpieces, — 

in painting, Italy, Germany. 
in dramatic literature, England. 

Overthrow of the feudal monarchy in England, 

caused by 

taxation without representation.^ 
intolerance toward dissenting sects.^ 

For results, see next period (note colonizations). 

Facts of Organization. 

Formation of the strong centralized feudal monarchies of th^ 
" Old Regime " 
in France, 
in England, 
in Spain. 

1 The first of these grievances evidently antedated Magna Charta; 
while the second began to be oppressive under Ehzabeth ; constitutional 
measures on the part of the king, and tolerance on the part of the people, 
might have averted the Civil Wars. 



EEFOEMATION AND BENAISSANCE EKA. 117 

brought about by 

consolidation of lands in royal hands, through 

inheritance. 

conquest. 

marriage, 
formation of standing armies, 
common interests of king and people in 

religion. 

commerce. 

Formation of independent national churches in 
England. 
Scotland. 
Switzerland, 
various German states. 

Formation of national units (France, England, Spain), 
bound togther by 
language, 
faith. 

loyalty to a single king. 

common interests of natural geographical units, 
represented by national, hereditary monarchs. 

Foundation of extra-European, Christian colonies 
in Asia. 
in America. 

Weakness and disintegration of the Empire,^ 
seen in 

dijfficulty in quelling peasants* war. 
territorial gains of France and Spain, at the ex- 
pense of the Empire, 
along the lihine. 
in Italy, 
sovereign political power held hj princes. 
peace of Westphalia, 
caused by 

inherent weakness of imperial office, 
dissensions of Catholics and Protestants. 



1 Under Charles the Fifth, who was such an extensive land-owner by 
his ancestral heritages, the Empire temporarily revived. 



118 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Reformation and Renaissance. — Continued. 
culminating in 

Thirty Years' War. 
imperial loss of 

Switzerland. 
HoUand.i 
loose confederation of sovereign states, nominally 
under the emperor. 

Characteristics of the Age. 

Leading interests, religion, and trade, seen in 

/-civil wars of France, Germany, 

causes of war > England. 

r ' see "\ 
treaties of peace > ' | " Great Armada." 

^ Thirty Years' War. 

objects of Columbus and other explorers. 

missionary enterprise. 

religious intolerance. 

literary productions, — 

translations of Bible. 

popular satires. 

artistic subjects. 

Change of the noble from a military to a courtly and cultured class, 

caused by 

massing of political and military power in royal 

hands. 

employment of gunpowder and standing armies. 

resulting in 

their appearance in 

literatm'e. 

art. 

adventure.2 

use of feudal wealth in art and display. 

Dissatisfaction of the fourth estate, seen in 

German peasant wars. 

outcry against enclosures in England. 

1 Italy went piecemeal, being common booty for France, Spain, and 
Austria, from the opening of the sixteenth century till the days of Victor 
Emmanuel. 

2 Note the early leaders of discovery. 



EEFORI^IATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 119 

Intense and varied intellectual activity, seen in 
Reformation movement. 
revival of learning, — 

Latin language and literature. 

Greek language and literature. 
favored by Keformation.^ 
new forms of literature, — 

drama. 

essay. 

romance, 
revolt against, Aristotle ^ in 

Platonic movement. 

inductive philosophy of Bacon, 
study of natural science.^ 

appeal to reason and observation as bases of truth.^ 
Increase of domestic comfort and safety. 
Strong influence of classic antiquity, seen in 
art. 

education. 

literature (translations, imitations, themes). 
International action and reaction, seen in 
international wars. 

importation or travel of artists from country to country, 
translations.^ 
Italian influence 

in English literature.^ 

on French manufacture. 

1 The same intellectual impulse which urged men to the study of nature 
in science, urged them to the study of the Greek and Hebrew originals in 
theology. (See Luther's letter, p. 424.) 

2 The first two statements are in reality hut particulars under the third, 
which marks the age in religion, art, and thought. The original source, be 
it the revealed truth, the natural form, or the untranslated classic, is the 
object of desire. In this desire, Italy herself led, though it was beyond 
her power to achieve. 

^ The translations of the great works of antiquity and of the Middle 
Age undoubtedly had their influence in unifying Europe, since they gave 
her a common body of literary material from which to start, — an in- 
fluence greatly facilitated by the new invention of printing, which likewise 
quickened the influence of one country on another, as of Italy on England. 



120 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

It lias been the custom, iu many of our text-books, to date 
the beginning of modern history at 1453, or at 1492 ; but al- 
though new elements then appear, still the great events, the 
characteristic forms of the Renaissance, seem to be the culmi- 
nation of the whole feudal, mediaeval period. From the long 
struggles of king and baron, strong-handed monarchies emerged ; 
from the long quarrels of temporal and spiritual powers within 
the^ Empire, and the long-felt intellectual revolt against an 
ancient, detailed creed, the Reformation sprang ; Columbus was 
the greatest of a line of daring Italian travellers and navigators 
who prepared his way ; in Raphael and Michael Angelo, bloomed 
the Christian art which Italy had never failed to cherish through 
all her mediaeval confusion.^ 

Meanwhile, the absolutely new, the modern impulses that 
beo^au in these centuries did not characterize them, but awaited 
their development in a later era. For these reasons, then, it 
has seemed best not to use the word "modern" until 1648 
be passed, and to treat this period as the climax of that 
Catholic and feudal civilization which had slowh' formed the 
states of Europe during the mediaeval age ; the more so since 
such a view gives significance and meaning to all the struggles, 
imperfections, and confusions necessary to develop the strong, 
clear forms of the sixteenth century. 

In comparing the map on p. 397 with that on pp. 31 G, 317, 
the most striking changes noted are the respective eidargement 
of the French and Spanish territories, and the obliteration of 
their feudal divisions ; this at once tells the story of the royal 
strength within their boundaries, and their appearance as fully 
formed national country -states, as opposed to the tribal city- 
states of antiquity. Here, again, the teacher should enforce 
the point, that landed possession lay at the foundation of all 
political and military power under the feudal system. Thus 
Charles the Fifth became the strongest monarch of his age, 

1 It must not be forgotten that Italy v/as, par excellence, the land of 
the church and the popes. 



EEFORMATION AIS^D EENAISSANCE EKA. 121 

through his inheritance of family titles to European lands ; al- 
though America was also included in his empire, still its unmanage- 
able distance, and the fact that it was neither cultivated nor settled, 
and so unable to yield either taxes or troops, made it of little 
value as a basis of political power, although from the first it 
was a rich source of the raw materials of commerce.^ From 
this desire for land, Italy was the greatest sufferer ; divided 
among many pett}^ powers, incapable of union, and 3'et too 
strong to be subdued, under the nominal rule of an emperor 
who had more than he could rightly manage on the northern 
side of the Alps, — Italy was, as Dante named her, an " inn of 
grief " ; indeed, the events of the sixteenth centurj^ (c) show 
that her possession was one of the great ambitions common to 
the European powers or, to speak more justly, to the European 
monarchs, for within this age, the monarchs were indeed the 
powers of Europe, with their standing armies and consolidated 
territories. Proof of this is seen in the arbitrary rule of Philip 
the Second of Spain, of Francis the First in France, of Henry 
the Eighth of England. Nothing more thoroughly displayed their 
strength than their ability to deal absolutely with the strongest 
interest of the age, religious faith, and to impose at will the 
Catholic or Protestant creed upon their subjects ; ^ the same fact 
shows how thoroughly the monarchies embodied the spirit of 
centralization, of national unity, and it may perhaps be argued 
that the high-handed intolerance with which Jews and Moors 
were driven from Spain, Huguenots massacred in France, Dis- 
senters suppressed in England, was a historic necessity in the 
formation of self-sustaining national units, ^ considering how 

1 To France and England^ America soon added to this advantage that 
of serving as an asylum for religious refugees. 

2 In France, their difficulty was enhanced by the fact that the religious 
parties revived the historic antagonism of king and noble. 

3 One must not say too much, however, on tliis point, unless he wishes 
logically to find liimscif on the side of Bismarck, in his attempt to drive 
the Poles from Prussian Poland. In illustration, however, of the royal 
side of the question, see Queen Elizabeth's letter, p. 432. 



122 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

high the feeling ran between men of opposing creeds. Thus 
the censorship of the press was felt almost from the begiiming 
to be a necessity- both by the pope, and by the various absolute 
mouarchs, since their centralized powers depended too thoroughly 
on men's universal approval to render wide-spread intellectual 
dissent and free discussion safe. To the centralization of 
wealth and power in the hands of their kings, the countries of 
Western Europe owed, however, much of their material and 
commercial progress. In England, France, and Spain, the 
court was the centre of impulse for discover}-, colonization, art, 
and literature. If the teacher have the time, he will find that 
a very valuable sub-stud}' may be made in this connection of 
Queen Elizabeth, whose reign displayed absolutism, perhaps, 
at its best, although its more objectionable features were not 
so much absent as overshadowed.-^ In the reign of James the 
First, on the contrary, these were the more decided features ; 
the expenses of the court devoured the earnings of the land 
which in justice should have been spent for the good of its 
people (see member for Oxford's speech, p. 433) ; taxes had 
been imposed without consent of Parliament ; worst of all, the 
king attempted to suppress the free speech of its members. It 
was the old feudal contest with the old feudal weapons all over 
again ; the king was poor, and must have money from his 
estates, who, on their part, would grant nothing without con- 
cessions of justice from the king. In the debate accompan3dng 
the Petition of Right, pp. 433, 434, it is plainly evident that 
men's minds 3'et clung to the feudal theory of a king's support, 
and felt that he should meet his own expenses from his own 
domain, the modern system of paying him a regular annual sum 
from a civil service list, whose charges are met by popular 
taxes, not yet having been invented. 

1 At least he should stop to note, that as a strong and noble nationalty 
calls forth the ardent patriotism of its citizens, so a strong, wise, truly 
"paternal" monarch calls forth the warm loyalty of his subjects (see 
i and J, p. 430). 



EEFORMATION AND EENAISSANCE ERA. 123 

These causes of the Eiighsh civil wars, however, would seem 
to have been subordinate to those arising from religious dis- 
sent ; judging from Hobbes' "Leviathan," and the "Solemn 
League," this was the cause which drove men on to war. 

The Scots' "Solemn League and Covenant" is one of the 
most significant documents of the age ; it breathes a solemn 
biblical intensity of faith ; it holds by an absolute union of 
church and state, in which the state shall be composed of the 
church, with the king for its executive servant ; -^ it is of neces- 
sity intolerant of Catholics and members of the established 
church. In all these ways it reflects the spirit and thought of 
the time, from the Puritan point of view, as Hobbes' "Levia- 
than " reflects it from the Royalist standpoint. 

It is generally felt that the Reformation is a rather delicate 
subject to deal with, so closely does it touch our own living 
interests. It is true that the movement is too often solely 
regarded from the Protestant standpoint, and explained exclu- 
sively as a great theological revolution. But a comparison of 
the decrees of the Council of Trent and of the Augsburg Con- 
fession will show that the theological differences were minor, 
while the practical questions of the marriage of priests and the 
relation of church and state were revolutionary ; the Protestant 
position of a " free church in a free state " was indeed so 
opposed to the whole European system from the earliest times, 
that not even the Protestants themselves knew how in that age 
to achieve it. Moreover, a due remembrance of the tendencies 
and facts of later mediaeval history will show that the Reforma- 
tion was the inevitable culmination of the secularization of the 
church, of national revolt against centralization, of intellectual 
revolt against authority. Luther came in the "fulness of 
time," the successor of Wiclif and IIuss, and with a body of 
long-gathering popular favor to sustain him. The facts that 

1 Compare Cowell's "Interpreter," where the king is regarded as the 
source of law and above the law ; in the Puritan and Scotch view, the 
king is hut the executive of fixed law. 



124 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the strongest spirits of the age were his upholders or fore- 
runners, that half the people of Europe were his admirers or 
followers, and that for more than a century the questions 
voiced so boldly by Luther shook Europe with war, prove 
clearly that he was a representative man, a man who spoke 
for half the world, a necessary man, demanded by the stress 
of contemporary thought and feeling. If time and cir- 
cumstance favor, the teacher can make a most admirable char- 
acter study on Luther, whose power largely consisted in his 
honesty, directness, independence, and passionate love of truth. 
Even in the extracts given, pp. 423, 424, it is plainly to be 
seen that he was eminently a conservative, and that his respect 
for the authorit}^ of the church was only exceeded by loyalty to 
the best truth he could discern. 

That the church was in need of reformation was clearly 
proved by tlie calling of the Council of Trent, and the earnest, 
wide-spread Jesuit movement ; within her precincts occurred a 
true reform, whose effects have lasted to the present time ; 
while the so-called Reformation was more of the nature of a re- 
volt, ending in the secession of the Teutonic races from that Latin 
church which had claimed to be the head and heart of Christen- 
dom. So thoroughly, however, had the church made itself 
one with all the secular interests of Europe, that this secession 
could only be accomplished either through great political dis- 
turbance, or by an appeal to arms ; and even then, as seen in 
the peace of Augsburg, it was still thought necessary for each 
prince to settle the religion of his own subjects ; unjust as 
this seems to modern ideas, we must always remember that 
differences in religion then meant civil war. Li fact, of the 
two leading interests of the age, religion and trade, religion 
was the stronger, as proved by the facts, that, in opposition to 
all commercial considerations, such useful industrial popula- 
tions as the Huguenots in France, or the Moors in Spain, were 
expelled or massacred ; while the ruling motive of the most 
important wars was decidedly religious difference. That this 
motive affected peoples as tlioroughly as kings is proved by 



EEFORMATION AND EENAISSANCE ERA. 125 

the fact that it was the motive of popular revolt and civil war 
as well as of international contest.^ One of the most interesting 
and picturesque illustrations of this prevailing spirit of tlie 
age is to be seen in all the events connected with the Great 
Armada. Its first object purported to be the recovery of 
England from heresy ; its second, to cripple forever a foe 
alreadj^ felt to be dangerous to Spanish commerce and coloniza- 
tion. On the side of the English and Dutch, meanwhile, the 
strongest defence against this mighty fleet was believed to be 
national prayer, and its misfortune and defeat were felt to be 
surely due to divine interposition. 

These wars of the Reformation essentially ended with the 
Thirty Years' War, one of the most important conflicts of 
modern times, not only on account of its magnitude and length, 
but because it made important changes on the European map ; 
while, during its progress, religious differences wearied them- 
selves out, or were settled with sufficient tolerance to render 
Europe quiet. It is significant to note in this connection, that 
France imder the lead of Cardinal Richelieu already subordi- 
nated religious to political interests, since she entered the war 
on the side of the Protestants, in order still further to weaken 
her neighbor, the emperor, and disunite the Empire. 

At the opening of the sixteenth century the kings of the 
West had pretty well escaped from the tyranny of the feudal 
nobles ; not so the peasants. Their complaints in Alsace- 
Lorraine, and the account of their state given in More's Utopia, 
show that they had been deprived of their ancient use of the 
land, and of their old common rights to forest and waste, 
which they had inherited from their Teutonic ancestors. In 
England, the practice of the landlords of turning their lands 
into sheep-farms greatly injured the poorer agricultural class, 

1 In tlie Peasants' War, the program of the peasants clearly shows how 
thoroughly social and political change seemed to them the natural accom- 
paniment of religious reform, since, in all their experience, these elements 
were inextricably mvolved in the consolidated structure under which they 
had always lived. 



126 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

"for," as More says, " one shepherd ... is enough to eat np 
that ground with cattle, to the occupying whereof about hus- 
bandry many hands were requisite." These "hands" being 
driven from their accustomed labor, unconsciously revenged 
themselves upon the state by becoming paupers, vagabonds, and 
thieves, thus changing from a valuable to a mischievous popu- 
lation ; nor did the sheep-pastures help to ameliorate this state 
of things by cheapening any necessity of life, since the land- 
lords were so wealthy and few that they easily monopolized the 
trade in wool, holding the prices where they would. 

The discoveries of the period were as pureh' commercial in 
their character as any of its undertakings. Yet the letter of 
Columbus^ (p. 421) shows how thorouglily zeal for the spread 
of the Catholic faith was mingled with the more secular objects 
of conquest and trade. From the very first, moreover, as is 
seen from the letter of Raleigh, national jealousies began to 
arise over these new-world possessions, England fearing lest 
Spain should become " unresistible " through these wealthy 
lands. 

The special original art of the Renaissance was painting, an 
art which reflected the three strong intellectual tendencies of 
the age. It borrowed its subjects from religion ; it sought its 
principles from Greek antiquity ; it drew its immediate inspira- 
tion from the direct study of nature ; these facts are illustrated 
by nearly every work of Raphael and Michael Angelo. In 
architecture, also, the antique forms appeared in the new combi- 
nations. In the court of the Borghese palace are mingled the 
Roman arch, the Greek pillar, and the mediaeval statue, while 
in St. Peter's, a similar combination is overtopped by the 
Oriental dome. While it is to be noted in this connection, that 

1 If the teacher have the time and material at hand, he can make a 
most interesting study of Columbus, whose life and character embodied 
much of the circumstances and spirit of the age. Even in the extract 
given, we see the loyalty, zeal, and modesty of this wonderful man, who 
has become too much of a name " to conjure by," instead of being present 
to our minds as a genuine and noble reality. 



REFORMATION AND EENAISSAKCE ERA. 127 

the fine arts of the Renaissance owed their development to the 
patronage of courts and wealthy Italian merchants, still it must 
be remembered that opportunity and not inspiration was thus 
supplied. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination "Work. — The map of 

Em-ope, the political pictm-e of the age. General view of the miity of 
the church from 325 to 1648. The political view of the Heformation. 
The three emperors, Augustus, Charlemagne, and Charles the Fifth. 
Famous monks. AVhy did not Italy and Germany become feudal 
monarchies like France and Spain ? " The ships of Tarshish." Was 
religious toleration, as we understand it, possible in the Reformation ? 
(Debate.) In what ways was the Renaissance the culmination of 
mediaeval civilization? The crimes of the sixteenth century. Extracts 
from the diary of a Protestant Dutchman, who emigrated to Manhattan 
Island. Same of an English Catholic emigrating to Maryland. The 
history embodied in the Escorial. Was patronage necessary to the 
development of the Renaissance art? How could literature become 
somewhat free from patronage in this age ? How did the discovery of 
America affect religious energy. Bacon v. Aristotle. Eifect of gun- 
powder on the occupation of the knight. What was the significance of 
the appearance of Don Quixote? The palace v. the castle. How does 
the public lighting of a city indicate a great advance in civilization ? 
Luther and Sokrates. Observations of an Italian travelling in Eng- 
land in the time of Elizabeth. 



128 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOEY. 

E. MODEEN EUKOPE, 1648-1880. 

I. Aa. General Study on *' Old Regime ^' in Europe ; Age 
of Louis XIV,, Frederick the Great, Anne and the 
Georges, Maria Theresa, Peter the Greats 

A word should be given in explanation of the phrase, " Old 
Regime " ; strictly speaking, the term should be applied to 
feudal as distinct from constitutional governments ; but I have 
used it as appl^^ing to the absolute monarchies and aristocratic 
societies developed from feudalism, whose power culminated or 
began to be broken during this period. 

The studies, pp. 446, 451, 458, may be summarized as 
follows : — 

GENERAL YIEW OF "OLD REGIME," 1648-1789. 

Organizations of Period. 

Absolute monarchies in 

^ f [• developed from feudal royalty. 
Spain ) 

Hungary \ 

Sardinia >- developed from feudal imperial " marches." ^ 

Prussia ) 

Russia. 

Militar}^ despotism in England, under constitutional forms, 

appearing as the 

commonwealth, — republican form. 

protectorate, — limited autocracy of Cromwell.^ 

1 These imperial marches were geographically so placed as to be 
involved in all European affairs. Thus, Savoy was always a felt power 
in all wars involving Italy, Germany, France, and Spain; Brandenburg 
lay between the Northern and Western groups of European states, while 
Austria was still the bulwark of Europe against the Turk. The strength 
of the Empire lay in its separate members, not in its body. 

^ Although in form limited, the powers assumed by Cromwell differed 
little from those of the monarchs of the "Old Regime"; the source of 
his power, however, was popular rather than hereditary, and Parliament 
alone could raise taxes or grant sui)piies — notable differences. 



MODERN EUROPE. 129 

Constitutional monarchy in England, 
limited or checked by 

fixed income of the king, 
parliamentary control of 
law. 
finance, 
army, 
ministerial responsibility and majority (party) 
influence. 
Republics in 

America, Switzerland. 
England (see military despotism). 
Holland. 
Temporary European leagues, for purposes of 
maintaining " Balance of Power." 
securing international justice, 
obtaining favorable commercial terms. 

Great Movements of Age. 

International and colonial wars, 
caused by ^ 

ill-defined boundaries. 

commercial inequalities. 

disputed successions to various thrones. 

desires of Lewis XIY. and Frederic the Great for 
more territory. 

Turkish invasion. 

limited harborage and coast-line of the Baltic. 

" Balance of Power " system. 
waged in the interests of 

kings and merchants. 

1 These causes may be grouped under the two very general lieads of 
" A desire to win, keep, or increase royal power of the feudal type," and 
"A desire for commercial advantage"; after gaining the points given in 
the summary, the teacher might set the question, " Reduce these causes 
to two general statements," as an exercise in generalization. On compar- 
ing these causes of war with those of the preceding period, it will at once 
appear how decidedly men's minds bad passed from religious to secular 
interests. Of course, so far as these wars grew out of desire for terri- 
tory, they naturally resulted from the feudal organization, which associ- 
ated dominion with land-ownership. 



130 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

General View of "Old Regime." — Continued. 
resulting in 

development of groups ^ of European lands, — 

Western : Spain, France, England, Nether- 
lands, Germany; Italy and Austria, 
involved. 
Northern : Scandinavia, Denmark, northern 

states of Germany, Russia, Poland. 
South-eastern : Turkey ; Austria and Russia 
involved, 
colonial and commercial annoyance and disturb- 
ance, 
devastation of European lands, 
misery of common people through 
disturbance of occupation, 
ruin of land and home, 
military service, 
taxes. 
Revolt, or tendency to revolt, against " Old Regime " in 
England, America, France. 

Relative Strength of European States. 

France strongest in ace of Lewis XIV., ) -, ^ 

° . ° ' >• as proved by 

Austria second in rank, > 

territorial gains ; European alliances against them. 

Brandenburg most rapidly growing state, proved by 
value and power in military affairs, 
comparison of territory at beginning and close of period. 

Italy weakest during whole period, proved by her constant ter- 
ritorial loss. 

Poland most rapidly losing power, proved by 

her comparative share in affairs at beginning and end of 

age. 
her first partition. 

1 Note that the leaders of the Western group are the lands of the 
Rhine and the Atlantic seaboard. The Northern group has the Baltic for 
its commercial centre, the South-eastern group has the Black Sea, with 
Constantinople for its Gibraltar. Again, the Western group was bound 
together by its historic relations with Rome. 



MODERN EUKOPE. 131 

England first commercial and naval power ^ | note treaties and 
Holland second commercial and naval power ) wars. 

Characteristics of Age. 

Absolutism of monarchs, displaying itself in 
disposal 2 of European lands ; note the 

" Chambers of Reunion." 

seizure of Strasburg. 

treaties of Utrecht and Kastadt. 

divisions of Italy. 

seizure of Silesia. 

partition of Poland, 
arbitrary ^ declarations of war on their own behalf. 

Decrease of religious intolerance, seen in 
changed causes of wars, 
spirit and material of literature. 
Growth of republican, democratic, revolutionary ideas in litera- 
ture. 
Growth of positive intellectual interests. 
Natural science, — 
chemistry, 
physics, 
astronomy. 

botany. \- New. 

zoology. 
Political economy. 
Philosophy of history and politics (common to 

England and France). 
Mental and moral philosophy (common to all 
Europe). 
Development of literature as a political, social, religious, and 
moral power, seen in 

close relation of English literature, politics, and religion 
of seventeenth century. 



1 The English possession of Gibraltar, giving her the command of the 
Mediterranean, was one of her most important commercial acquisitions. 

2 These may be regarded as euphemisms for actions which, in private 
life, and on a petty scale, would be described as dishonest, mean, cruel, or 
unjust. 



132 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

General View of "Old Regime." — Continued. 

new, popular classes of literature, — 
periodicals, 
novels. 

satirical attacks (note caricature also). 

influence of English politics on French thought. 

censorship of the press. 
Foundations for truth, sought in 

nature. 

reason. 

history. 
Growth of philanthropic spirit. 
General material and intellectual progress, favored by. 

royal interest and patronage. 

enormous development of popular literature. 

invention of machinery (the steain-encjine). 

invention of apparatus. 

Nothing more strongly marks the political progress of this 
age than the drawing together of the states of Europe into a 
single commonwealth of nations, conscious of mutual relations 
and mterests. This consciousness expressed itself in constant 
attempts to preserve the ''Balance of Power" by temporary 
alliances against any state which, for the time being, threatened 
to become too strong for her neighbors, or by such compro- 
mises as that b}^ which Poland was first divided between the 
jealous powers about her. 

While a general system of European politics was thus develop- 
ing, England was leading the way to the modern system of govern- 
ment, that depends for its support on popular suffrage, and 
organizes itself in representative forms. Even the restored 
Stuarts belonged rather to the modern than the old regime^ 
and from the fall of Charles the First, England could no 
longer be properly classed as a feudal state, although many 
feudal forms remained, notably the old assembly of the first 
estate in the House of Lords. From that time, the House 
of Commons became the strongest political power in Fmg- 
land, although at first it used that power so timidly-, that 



MODERN EUROPE. 133 

often the king still had his way ; but that Parliament was in 
reality the stronger is proved by the inability of either of the 
restored Stnarts to carry their measures quite against its will. 
But with the " Declaration of Rights," Parliament became visi- 
bly the chief political power, since it held in its own hands the 
constant control of the law, of the treasure, of the army. In 
this expressed change consisted the accomplished "Revolution 
of 1688," a revolution which the Commons could easily main- 
tain by the absolute dependence of the executive upon them 
for financial support. Shortl}' after this revolution, two new 
features of the constitution became decidedly visible : one, the 
development of a responsible ministry in sympathy with the 
majority of the popular vote ; ^ the other, the development of 
rival parties in the country ; each part}' striving to educate 
public opinion according to its own standards and desires ; and 
each party driving or driven in turn to the various political 
reforms called for by actual circumstance or b}' popular theory. 
When one notes how all the tendencies, interests, and posi- 
tive growths of this time are those which are still in our own 
centur}-, urging their way to culmination, he may perhaps feel 
justified in including the age in the modern period, in spite of 
the completed feudal forms it presents in leading states. P>ut 
the states' system of Europe, the appearance of popular repre- 
sentation in government, of religious toleration,^ of free speech 
and popular agitation in regard to the gravest affairs, — of 
machine work in industry, of the novel and the newspaper in 
literature, the development of natural science, the growth of 
philanthropy, — all these things unite the age with ours by 
close organic ties. 

1 But it must be remembered that the "popular vote" of the whole of 
this period was very limited, according to present standards, and that the 
House of Commons was essentially aristocratic in composition and feeling. 

2 It must be noted that religious toleration was a tendency rather than 
a fact. The acts of the first freely elected parliament of the Eestoration 
show how intolerant the majority of the English people still were; M'hile 
James was driven from the throne quite as much on account of his atti- 
tude toward papists, as on account of his arbitrary government. 



134 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Subjects for Essay and Examination Work. — The political 
crimes of the eighteenth century. Was the Navigation Act a per- 
manent advantage to England? (Debate.) Why should the Baltic 
be a cause of war ? The mediaeval causes for the weakness of Italy 
during this age. Views of a peasant in the Palatinate on the policy 
of Lewis XIV. Views of a French peasant on the same subject. 
Relation of colonial affairs to international European wars. Review 
of the growth of Brandenburg into the kingdom of Prussia. ^ Imagin- 
ary dialogue between Russia, Prussia, and Austria on the partition 
of Poland. Value of Constantinople to Russia. 



I. Ab. Sj)ecial Study of the " Old Megitne '' in France 
{Eighteenth Century Type), 

The results of this study may be embodied in some such 
summary as the following : — 

"OLD REGIME" IN FRANCE (EIGHTEENTH CENTURY). 

Organization, Absolute Feudal Monarchy (compare later Roman 
Empire and Oriental despotisms). 
Supported by 

the favor of its privileged classes, — 
the officers of the army, \ 
the officials of the church, >- opposed to reform, 
an hereditary nobility, ) 
the revenue from 
feudal dues, 
arbitrary taxes. 

the sale of offices, privileges, and titles, 
borrowed money. 
a standing army. 
Producing, or marked, 

in administration, by 
confusion, 
injustice and inequality. 

^ Similar subjects may be given in connection with the growths of Savoy 
and Austria. 



MODERN EUROPE. 135 

strong centralization, 
corruption and favoritism, 
official neglect and idleness, 
attempts at reform,^ 
aiming at 

equality 

of taxation, 
of opportunity, 
before the law. 
religious toleration, 
legal uniformity, 
freedom of trade, 
freedom of thought and speech, 
economy at court, 
failing, through 

selfish interests of privileged classes, 
arbitrary laws, taxes, etc. 
repression of 

free speech and 
a free press, 
neglect of local interests, — 
roads, 
schools, 
churches, etc. 
in finance, by 

extravagance, insufficient revenue to meet ex- 
penses;^ .*. 
debt, dishonesty, 
in law, by 

venality (buying and selling of office, and of jus- 
tice itself), 
unequal punishments, based on class distinction, 
barbarous punishments, 
uncertain, tardy, and varied justice. 

1 Compare these attempted reforms with modern ideas, and with the 
actual changes brought about in France by the Revolutionary period. 

2 This is the prime difficulty which hampers the government, and gives 
to France her one effective means for forcing reform. (Compare England 
before the Civil Wars.) 



136 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOEY. 

" Old Regime " in France. — Continued. 
in the church, by- 
close union of church and state ; 
intolerance, 
corruption, simony, 
inequality, based on class distinctions, 
in the army, by 

corruption. 

inequality and injustice (class distinctions), 
compulsory and oppressive enlistment. 
no chance for honorable promotion, 
in trade, by 

government interference, 
exclusive guild monopoly; .*. 
careless work, 
high prices, 
in society, by 

hereditary status ; .*. 
unequal opportunity for 
official position, 
acquirement of wealth, 
acquirement of education, 
dependence of talent on royal or aristocratic favor. 

The Life of France. 

At court, 

marked by 

extravagance, in behalf of pleasure and pomp, 
immorality. 

neglect of state interests, 
love of pleasure, 
supported by 

bad debts to the bourgeoisie, 
resulting in 

the formation of corrupt and mischievous ideals, — 
pleasure, 
idleness, 
splendor, 
oppressive taxation. 

careless and mischievous administration, 
financial embarrassment. 



MODERN EUROPE. 137 

Among the bourgeoisie, 
marked by 

honesty. 

domestic virtue. 

industry and intelligence. 

public interest, 
resulting in 

prosperity and comparative wealth. 

disapproval of the court. 

desire for government reform.^ 

comparative political importance. 
Among the peasants, 
marked by 

extreme poverty. 

extreme physical misery. 

extreme ignorance and superstition. 

oppressive taxation and overwork. 

no protection for property or labor. 

enforced monopolies (gabelle, etc.). 
resulting in 

inferior development of French resources, ? 

blind dissatisfaction and unintelligent revolt, > 
development of dangerous classes, 
physical degradation of peasant. 
desire for destruction of " Old Regime." 

Thought and Feeling. 

Of the supporters of royalty, — 

belief in divine origin and support of kings; .*. 
feeling that disloyalty is irreligious. 
belief in arbitrary right of the king 

to change or neglect the law. 

to claim and use the property of the realm.^ 

^ The bourgeoisie would try to reform rather than destroy the "Old 
Regime," since violent change is alwaj^s opposed to the interests of trade ; 
while to the peasant, revolution could only mean change for the better. 

2 These beliefs in regard to the king had their historic reason. The 
idea of his " divine right " arose partly from the Scriptural presentation 
of Hebrew royalty, and partly from the close relations of the heads of 
church and state during the Middle Ages; his relation to the law as its 



138 STUDIES IN GENEEAL HISTORY. 

"Old Regime " in France. — Continued. 
servility and dependence. 

fear of Voltaire, Rousseau, and their followers.^ 
sentimental sympathy for the poor.^ 

Of Voltaire, Rousseau, Helvetius, and their followers, — 
revolt against absolutism of king, 
admiration of English thought and government, 
demand for free thought and speech, 
demand for popular power to change laws, 
demand for equality before the law. 
demand for equal education (opportunity), 
belief in common right to the land, 
belief in happiness as standard of morality, ) 

belief in experience as only source of knowledge, ) 
loss of any fixed standard of right-doing. 

A thorough understanding of the " Old Regime" is essential 
to a clear understanding of the Revolution, which was by no 
means a single revolt against a single thing, but a complex 
turmoil arising from the clash of strong and wealthy classes, 
of inexperienced thinkers, of ignorant and desperate masses, 
against an ancient, rigid system, which had spread root and 
branch through every institution, every industry, every habit of 
French life. It is therefore necessary to look fairly at this 
system, and understand just its relations to each great class of 
society, and again, to examine as far as we can into the status 
of each of these classes, in order that we may understand the 
elements as well as the causes of the inevitable Revolution. 



source and chief executive, gave rise to the feeling that he was above the 
law ; while the whole feudal system rested on the theory that all land- 
titles derived their first validity from royal grants. 

1 No fact more thoroughly proves the influence of Voltaire and Rous- 
seau than this fear practically expressed through a severe censorship of 
their writings. 

2 That this sympathy was sentimental, was proved fast enough by the 
strenuous opposition made by the upper classes to the genuinely helpful 
reforms proposed by Turgot and Necker. 



MODEEN EUROPE. 139 

For the Revolution was inevitable ; the king could no longer 
force money from the third estate and the peasantry ; long 
wars, and the fetters imposed on industry by the feudal regime, 
had exhausted or bound fast the resources of France ; and large 
masses of men, even the king himself, had come face to face 
with the primal question, "How to live?" Aside from this, 
men everywhere found themselves hampered and embarrassed, 
if not absolutely wronged, by an unavoidable subordination to 
an unwieldy mediaeval system. There is no more striking 
example in all history of the power of an organization to shape 
the life of men unfortunately than is furnished by this "Old 
Regime " ; the nobles, shut out by law or custom from commer- 
cial and professional careers, became a mass of idle, pleasure- 
loving landlords, dependent on the king for their occupations 
and honors ; the peasants necessarily' starved and deteriorated 
under a S3'stem which hehl them fast to the laud, and, at the 
same time, demanded a disproportionate share of taxes and of 
heavy physical toil ; the bourgeoisie, more healthfully situated, 
free merchants of the towns or cities, with an assured market, 
were the soundest men of France, — thoughtful, industrious, and 
somewhat fitted for citizenship. 

Among such materials, the ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau 
might well be feared by those who wished to uphold the " Old 
Regime," since in their pages its very foundations were attacked ; 
according to them, the law, the land, the verj' constitution, were 
primarily for the good of the people, and should be under their 
control. That law and government should emanate from popu- 
lar sources is an idea now considered fundamental, but in the 
France of the eighteenth century it was revolutionary, although 
naturally called forth by the abuses of an absolute and 
arbitrary rule. Rousseau went further, and affirmed that 
the land should belong to all the people, a demand easy to 
comprehend when we remember that absolutism had abused its 
power here also, and had devoted large tracts of French terri- 
tor}^ to the purposes of idle pleasure, while no hard-working 
peasant was secure in its use or possession. 



140 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Thought was indeed the most dangerous enemy of the " Old 
Regime " ; its financial support, and the mass of its standing 
army, were drawn from classes that would with reason desire 
thoroughly to change or destroy it, the instant that their eyes 
and minds were opened to its injustice, awkwardness, and 
weakness. The difficulties in their way were meanwhile great, 
— the powerful landed interests of the clergy and the nobles ; 
their own ignorance or inexperience ; the dangers with which 
revolution always threatens property ; the practical hindrances 
to united action found in bad and uncertain roads, and in the 
natural inertia of men in regard to great and general affairs. 
That in spite of all, the Revolution came, proves that France 
had a vital need for " Liberty^ Equality^ Fraternity " ; — for free- 
dom of trade, of thought, of speech ; for equality before the 
law ; for equal chances to learn and labor ; for a truly sympa- 
thetic fraternity' between class and class. The whole ot Europe, 
but France in special, was full of misery, but full of hope ; for 
in England and America the day had dawned. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — Stupidities 
of the "Old Regime." Did they originate in stupidity? Defend 
your position. Why should the peasants of France become enraged., 
rather than thoughtful, under the "Old Regime"? Account by a 
common French soldier of his experiences in the army. Reminis- 
cences of an "Invalide." What were the "prospects" open to young 
Frenchmen of each class during the eighteenth century? Reflections 
of JN^ecker on the usefulness of a French minister. Why should 
thoughtful Frenchmen admire England? Why should the ideal 
prevalent at court not spoil the " Bom-geoisie " ? A peasant's notion 
of reform. A noble's. A merchant's. 



FRENCH REVOLUTION AND WARS OF NAPOLEON. 141 



E, II. PEEIGH EEVOLTJTION AITD WAES OF NAPOLEOl^, 

1789-1815. 

Each of the studies, 1,2, and 3, should he summarized and 
finished before passing on to new work. The following tabula- 
tions may prove helpful : — 

1. FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

Caused by : 

Arbitrary absolutism of " Old Regime ; " . • . 

Oath of Tennis-court. 
A standing army under absolute royal control; .*, 

formation of '* National Guard." 
Feudal oppressions of nobles; .*. 

destruction of title-deeds. 
Instability of law and government ; .*. 

demand for a signed constitution as a received and 
understood standard of government.^ 
Exemption of nobles and clergy from taxation ; .-. 

resignation of feudal privilege by the nobles. 

cojifiscation of church property to state use. 
Degradation and ignorance of lowest classes; .*. 

cruel and unintelligent action in revolution. 
Suppression of free thought and religious intolerance; .*. 

reaction to worship of " Reason." 

Favored by : 

Weakness of " Old Regime," seen in 

inability to suppress revolution or preserve order. 
attempted flight of king, 
"emigration" of nobles, 
sudden completeness of its fall. 

1 The demands of this first constitution show what wrongs the middle 
class — the third estate — had most keenly felt ; namely, taxation without 
representation, arbitrary and uncertain law, and the exhaustion of French 
blood and treasure in foreign wars, waged at the will of the king. 



142 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

French Revolution. — Continued. 

General French sympathy i with the Revolution, strengthened by 

attacks of foreign powers. 

vacillation and weakness of king. 
Marked by : 

(1) Rapid succession of constitutional changes. 

(2) Popular suspicions of league of European kings, .*. 

determination to execute Lewis XYI.^ 
popular energy in foreign wars. 

(3) Despotism under rexDublican forms, Sept., 1792 to July, 1794, 

embodied in 

Parisian clubs and committees, 
demagogic autocrats (Robespierre), 
proving its nature by 

arbitrary imprisonment and massacre. 
" Reign of Terror." 
imposition of revolutionary worships, 
supported by 

terrorism , — 

imprisonment, 
assassination. 

condemnation without trial, 
mob violence. 

(4) Reaction against mob-rule, and gradual restoration of order, 

embodied in 

Directory. 

constitution of year YIIL, ;N"apoleonic rule, 
supported by 

national forces, led by 

Ncqwleon Bonaparte. 

(5) Foreign conquest, accompanied by 

(6) Proclamation of republican principles, and 
Enforcement of republican constitutions in conquered territory. 

1 Had the body of the people been attached to the " Old Regime," of 
course it could not finally have been overthrown, since perhaps even the 
peasants would have made a good defence, judging from their energy in 
the Vendean War. 

2 The whole government of the " Old Regime " had been so absolutely 
centralized in tlie person of the monarch, that to tlic peasants and the 
populace, at least, the execution of the king would mean the fall of the 
whole system. 



FRENCH EEVOLUTION AND WARS OF NAPOLEON. 143 

Results of Revolution. 

Military autocracy of Napoleon.^ 
Uniform system of publistied law (Code Napoleon). 
A published constitution, open to popular criticism. 
Established recognition of the representative principle. 
Destruction of feudalism ; .*. 

equality before the law. 

uniform system of taxation substituted for feudal dues. 
Formation of a national army. 
Development of French patriotism, through 

common sufferings and achievements. 

foreign attack, and 

^N'apoleon's victories. 

Although the " Old Regime " apparently fell at a blow before 
the first attack of vigorous revolution, we must still remember 
with Taine, that its spiritual forces, its habits of thought and 
action, were powerful factors throughout the Revolutionar}- age ; 
perhaps indeed the}' still possess a governing force in France. 
America was too recent and distant an experiment to have any 
practical lessons to teach, while English kings still managed 
by various forms of bribery and trickery to govern more in 
sympathy with the old than with the coming political system 
of Europe. France herself only knew by experience one way 
of government, the way of centralized despotism, and throughout 
her attempts at political liberty, this political habit clung. The 
most ardent defenders of the ''Rights of Man," when they 
obtained the power and responsibility of government, could not 
see their way clear to solve the problem of securing order at 
home and victory abroad, without recourse to force, and the 
representative machine was far too imperfect and ill-adjusted 
to work out desirable results, especially in a period so full 
of rapid and critical dangers. Taine has clearly shown that 
the despotisms of the "Old Regime" were to blame for the 
despotisms of the Revolution ; but perhaps he does not sufH- 

1 The comparison between Cromwell and Napoleon is a natural and strik- 
ing one; but it applies rather to their circumstances than their characters. 



144 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

cientl}^ emphasize the " dire necessity,^' which clay after day 
forced on bold but inexperienced men to some sort of great 
and decisive action, involving the movements of troops, the 
wholesale judgments of courts, the suppression of disturbance, 
the defence of legislative bodies, the conclusion of treaties. 
Even a modern state, with a smoothly working representative 
system, with railway and telegraph and newspaper at com- 
mand, in such a time of foreign and domestic stress, would find 
itself urged to some form of easily and rapidly acting autocracy. 
It is beyond all doubt that France could not change in less than 
a generation, if, indeed, so quickly, from the " Old Regime" to 
a genuine republic of any sort. How badly even the most 
advanced republicans understood the spirit they had evoked 
was shown by the enforcement of republican forms and names 
upon countries prepared neither to understand nor be grateful 
for them. Under these conditions, it was fortunate for France 
that the Directory, driven for self-preservation to the protec- 
tion of Napoleon, found in him a master for itself and France ; 
a master of suftlcient genius to hold France firm to the acknowl- 
edged principles of the Revolution ; a master who knew how 
to give France law and order and peace under the new forms 
which she herself could not yet use ; and a master representative 
in his own person of popular government. 

The constitution of the year VIII. differed vastly from the 
" Old Regime," in that it recognized the people as a part of the 
government of France, and brought the whole country under a 
uniform standard of law. Although in France, as in England, 
revolution did not at once change the reality of various politi- 
cal relations, yet it gave men new forms and new tools, better 
fitted to the spirit and tendency of the age. Little by little the 
new forms were to become inspired with the breath of popular 
life, and little by little the new tools were to gain edge and 
temper and strength, as the awkward grasp of the people 
became surer and finer. 

The Revolution is even more striking from the social than 
the political standpoint ; and its political results may almost be 



FRENCH KEVOLUTION AND WAES OF NAPOLEON. 145 

regarded as a necessary outcome of its social changes. Its 
essential fact was, that it overthrew feudaUsm, or a society 
based on hereditary status, and gave to France instead a nation 
of citizens and a society based upon equal relationship to a 
common soil. 



2. THE NAPOLEONIC RULE. 

Developed by : 

Necessities of France for 

domestic peace. 

foreign victory. 
Military genius of Napoleon. 

Supported by : 

Patriotism of France, and 

Loyalty of armies to Napoleon. 

Napoleonic recognition of republican principles and forms.^ 

Resulting in : 

Recovery of Rhine frontier for France. (Compare with boun- 
dary of ancient Gaul.) 
Growth of Napoleonic Empire. (Compare with Empire of 

Charlemagne.) 
Fall of " Holy Roman Empire." ^ 

European opposition to Napoleon ^ and revolutionary principles, 
caused by 

fear of his military genius. 

1 Note Napoleon's recognition of the principle of manhood suffrage in 
his own elevation ; but in his arbitrary disposal of the various parts of his 
empire, he followed the spirit and example of the " Old Re'gime." 

2 In order to call attention to this rather uninfluential event, the teacher 
should remind the class that it was the title of Augustus Csesar, which 
came to its end in 1806 ; and that from this Holy Roman Empire have 
been formed Italy, Germany, Austria, Poland, Holland, Belgium, and 
Switzerland. 

3 It is interesting to note how neighborly jealousies sometimes over- 
came the common fear of Napoleon, as when Austria and Prussia joined 
him against Russia. In the early part of the Revolution, also, France 
was often indebted to various European jealousies or rival ambitions. 



146 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

The Napolkonic Rule. — Continued. 

spread of the republican principles which he 

claimed to personify.^ 
national reactions against foreign influence or 
rule, in 
Spain. 
Kussia. 
Prussia, 
resulting in 

fall of Napoleon. 

readjustment of Europe at Congress of Vienna. 

The Congress of Vienna proved itself the representative of the 
"Old Regime," not only by its restorations of old dynasties, 
but by its arbitrary disposal of European lands and peoples. 



3. PRUSSIAN REVOLUTION. 

Developed by : 

Necessity of Prussia for 

forces \ 

funds >• to cope with Napoleon. 

patriotism ) 
Failure of " Old Regime *' to meet this necessity, "because of 

inequality and inadequacy of taxation. 

entire separation of people and government. 

fixed nature of occupations ; ^ .*. 

loss of free energy. 

fixed tenure and status of land; .*. 

inadequate development of Prussian resources. 

popular sympathy with French Revolution. 
Genius of Stein and his associates. 

1 The formation of the "Holy Alliance" proves how thoroughly the 
monarchs of Europe realized that Napoleon was not their final foe, hut 
rather the ideas which he had nominally represented. 

2 For the historic origin of the three classes of Prussia, with their corre- 
sponding occupations, see " Studies," p. 226. 



FRENCH KEVOLUTIOX AND WAKS OF NAPOLEON. 147 



B.eforms of Stein, Scharn- 
>- horst, and their associ- 
ates. 



Resulting in 

Formation of a national army, 
Abolition of serfdom, 
Free trade in land, 
Free choice of occupation to Prus- 
sian citizens, 
Nationalization of Prussia; .-. 
Growth of patriotism, developed by- 
reform of the state, 
example of Spain. ^ 
agitation of secret societies, 
active efforts of enthusiastic patriots, — 
Arndt, poet. 
Jahn, gymnast.2 
Fichte, philosopher, 
statesmanship of Stein. 
War of Liberation. 
Recognition of constitutional principles.^ 

The French and the Prussian Revolutions were caused by 
similar needs, and effected similar ends ; both were forced on b}^ 
the demand of the government for money, which an exhausted 
land could by no means yield, and for popular sympathies, 
which an oppressed peasantry and a neglected middle class 
could by no means give ; and both ended in most radical change, 
— in the destruction of the rigid feudal state, with its classes, 
lands, and occupations, fixed by distinctions of birth, and in 

1 From the extract given on p. 488, it will be seen that the national 
movement in Spain was greatly intensified by a spirit of religious zeal 
against the " heretic." 

2 Although there is a touch of romance about the attractive figure of 
Jahn, his idea was nevertheless far more practical than one at first might 
think ; the splendidly trained peoples of antiquity show what the physi- 
cal culture of the individual may accompHsh for the race ; while in the 
Prussian army we have the modern application of the same principle. 

^ These, however, did not begin to work so quickly in Germany as in 
France ; but the seed was planted ; and its life was in it, " after its kind," 
from the day that Stein called together again the old mediaeval estates, 
which were in their spirit and origin popular assemblies. 



148 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the erection instead of the mobile modern state, with its free 
citizens, lands, and trades. But while the French Revolution 
was precipitated upon an unprepared, inert, and helpless gov- 
ernment whicli must needs fall before its onset, the Prussian 
Revolution was the result of strong and simple statesmanship, 
whose measures were carried out by government itself, and 
carried out so peacefully that men were scarcely' aware that 
Prussia as well as France and England had entered the world 
of modern states. The revolution was the less marked because 
the fundamental change was social, as in France ; and here it 
was unaccompanied by any agitation for those political changes 
with which France had terrified Europe. For the time being, 
Prussia felt no need of such political change. The Prussian 
monarchs had attended to the duties of their office and the 
interests of their people far better than the kings of France ; 
the changes of Stein and his associates met the need of the 
hour ; the freeing of serfs and the reform of the army gave 
Prussia at once a free citizen army, enUvened throughout by 
the breath of hopeful emulation ; free trade in land rendered 
every acre available to capital ; and free choice of occupation 
allowed every man to serve the state according to his best or 
favorite capacity ; thus the Prussian resources began to gather 
force and voUime from farm and shop and counter ; and the 
free citizens became better and better able to bear the burdens 
of taxation. Meanwhile, all these reforms made Prussia a 
country to be loved, so that the revolution at home, and 
admiration for Stein, began to neutralize the effects of the 
Revolution in France and admiration for Napoleon. 

From the day that Stein noticed the power of the Spanish 
revolt, he regarded the passion of patriotism, the sentiment of 
nationality, as the mightiest foe that could be evoked against 
Napoleon ; hence his eagerness to spread the news of it, and to 
rouse the national pride to enthusiasm by poetry and stirring ex- 
ample. That Napoleon entirely agreed with Stein's opinion, is 
easily inferred from his demand for Stein's dismissal ; that Stein 
was wholly right was proved by the event. Even in Yorck, the 



FRENCH REVOLUTION AND WARS OF NAPOLEON. 149 

brave old general, the love of liis land overcame his life-long 
habit of militaiy obedience. 

I cannot forbear adding that the development of Prussian 
nationality^ is a most significant lesson as to the wide popular 
effects which the conscious purpose and action of a few united 
and devoted patriots ma}^ achieve. 

Suggestions for Essay and Examination "Work. — Does the 
Ke volution show the French people to have been eager or slow in 
regard to political change? AVhy is a "national guard" the most 
' effective national defence, other things being equal? How did it hap- 
pen that France, during the Kevolutionary period, was so well able to 
meet foreign invasion? How was the "Old Regime" to blame for 
the excesses of the Revolution ? The inconsistencies of Robespierre. 
Journal of an " Emigrant." Letters of a Norman noble, present in 
the national assembly from its opening to Aug. 5, 1789. Letters of a 
Lyons merchant present during the same period. Mob-rule v. the 
" Old Regime." Reflections of a Roman citizen on the French procla- 
mation of a Roman republic. Same of a Venetian aristocrat on the 
proclamation of a Venetian republic. What are the uses of a writ- 
ten constitution ? 

The working of the " Balance of Power" system during the Napo- 
leonic era. Napoleon and Charlemagne. What popular ideals and 
desires did Napoleon personify or accomplish? AVhat old historic 
idea appears in the phrase "Holy Alliance"? How far have the 
arrangements of the Congress of Vienna remained permanent? 

What does the history of the Prussian Revolution show as to the 
value of personal effort for a great political object ? What would 
have been the opinion of practical, common-sense men as to the 
advisability of Prussia's making any attempt to resist Napoleon after 
the Treaty of Tilsit? How did the reforms of Stein increase happi- 
ness? Energy? Napoleon v. Stein. Value of secret societies as 
instruments of agitation. (Debate.) 



150 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



E. III. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

On page 491, a blank space is left after "chief contempo- 
rary and original sources," in order that the teacher may have 
an opportunit}^ to test the pupil's power to recognize the true 
sources of historical knowledge when he sees them. If he has 
noted these sources as they have been indicated throughout the 
work, he will now be ready to see that the contemporary world 
is full of the original "raw material" of nineteenth century 
history ; that it is appearing in newspapers, in new laws, 
in contemporarj' literature and art, in declarations of war and 
treaties of peace, in statistics, in investigations and inventions, 
in amusements and manners ; and, above all, in the organizations 
into which men are crowding the forces of numbers and knowl- 
edge, or from which they are silently withdrawing these forces. 
If the class be sufHciently mature, there is no better place than 
this to enter upon some discussion of the comparative value of 
historic materials, and to note the tests by which this or that 
should be rejected as useless. But even with the most mature 
pupils that are likely to use this book, it may not be well to 
enter further into the matter than to note, that in all the mass 
of actions, facts, opinions, and objects, which enter into the lives 
of men, some enter so widely into the lives of the generality so 
as to become positive forms or forces in society, and so rise to 
be of general typical historic value ; and while the student should 
respect ever}^ action, fact, opinion, and object as significant, 
he should be led to feel a sense of proportion in regard to their 
relative value. 

The " Studies" on 1 and 2 may be summarized somewhat as 
follows : — 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 151 

NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

Political Organizations. 

t monarchical (England). 

Constitutional governments, ^ republican (America, France). 

(imperial (Germany), 
composed of 

an executive head, — 

non-representative and irresponsible {Ex.: 

king). 

representative and responsible {Exs. : prime 

minister, president). 

legislative chambers, — 

upper house : 

hereditary", elected, or appointed. 

lower house : 

elected, more popular than upper. 

courts of justice. 

a democratic body of citizens, bound together by 

common interests in 

government. 

law. 

defence. 

education. 

religion. 

common residence on national soil. 

based upon popular approval. 

characterized by 

majority rule. 

universal suffrage, or strong tendency tow^ard it. 

systems of checks. 

legal and political equality of citizens. 

publicity of measures. 

representative system, applied to 

magistrates (Ex. : English premier). 

assemblies (Ex.: Reichstag). 

citizen-armies. 

aided or rendered possible by 

railroads, telegraphs, steamships, etc. 

newspapers, public education. 

public spirit and interest of citizens. 



152 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOEY. 

Nineteenth Century. — Continued. 

The nation-state, bound together by ties of 
common race and speech, 
common religion, 
common government and interests. 

Exs. : Italy, Germany, France, Russia. 
Imperial, colonial union (England), 
composed of 

Europeans, and 
undeveloped or native races, 
developed through 

commercial interests, 
modern means of communication. 
European congresses, conferences, etc., 
tending to 

unify Europe. 

substitute arbitration for war. 
protect weak states, 
preserve the " Balance of Power." 
Political parties, embodying 

public opinion in working organizations of citizens. 
Secret societies, 

agitating for 

national independence (Germany, Italy, Greece), 
changes in government, — 

constitutional (Germany, Italy), 
communistic or socialistic (France, Ger- 
many), 
anarchic (Russia). 

Other Organizations. 

The free church in the free state (America). 
Combinations of labor, — 

trades-unions. 

secret societies. 

international unions. 

co-operative unions (Ex. : building associations). 

political parties (German socialists). 
Public schools. 
Citizen-armies. 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 153 



Voluntary societies for 

management of charities, 
agitation of reforms, 
pursuit of learning, etc., etc. 

Great corporations for carrying on business enterprises (bank- 
ing, manufacturing, transportation, telegraphy, etc., etc.). 

Great Movements and Tendencies of Age. 

r Asia (England, Russia). 
Europization of other conti- J Africa (England, France), 
nents, ( Australia (England), 

in interests of 

commerce. 
Christianity. 
Development of nationalities, 
completed in 

Germany, Italy, 
Greece, Holland, Belgium, 
agitated for in 

Hungary, Poland, Ireland, 
proceeding in 
America. 
Formation of popular constitutional governments in 
France, Germany, Italy, 
Austria, Spain, etc. 
European wars,i 

in behalf of 

nationality. 
" Balance of Power." 
colonial interests, 
resulting in 

formation of national units, 
constant checking of greater powers.^ 
arbitrary disposal of weaker peoples (in some 
cases). 

1 Perhaps no one war outranks in importance the Franco-Prussian, 
which at one blow made France a republic, completed the independence 
and freedom of Italy, and bound the states of Germany into imperial 
union. 

2 Notably Russia ; on whom Europe has long kept constant watch. 



154 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

Nineteenth Century. — Continued. 

Abolition of slavery and serfdom (England, ^ Russia, Prussia, 

America). 
Socialism, 

embodied in 

political parties, 
secret societies. 
aiming at^ 

state ownership of means of labor, 
more equitable distribution of proj&ts of labor, 
greater leisure and culture for laboring classes, 
reorganization of states in the interests of labor. 

Characteristics of Age. 

Democracy. 
Individual freedom of 

occupation, labor, movement, 
residence. 

speech and thought. 
Appearance of lowest classes as 

members of society (through abolition of slavery and 

serfdom), 
members of the state (through universal suffrage, citi- 
zen-armies, and public schools). 
Industrial development, 
favored by 

new means of transportation and communication 

(railway, telegraph, steamship), 
introduction of machinery, 
opening of Oriental markets, 
development of new lands. 
Scientific investigation. 
General diffusion of intelligence, comfort, and freedom. 

1 In England the slave-owners were paid for their property by the state ; 
in America, through the pressure of circumstance, this property was re- 
garded as " contraband of Avar." 

2 I have purposely stated these aims in the most general terms, since 
the name of socialist covers so many theories and desires. A more difi- 
nite list might be made for class-work by paraphrasing the demands u\i\({ki 
on pp. 537, 538. 



THE NINETEENTH CENTUKY. 155 

Strained relations of church and state. 
Religions toleration, seen in 

Christian and Mohammedan equality in Turkey. 

repeal of corporation and test acts in England. 

Catholic relief act in England. 

disestablishment of Irish "church." 
Cosmopolitanism, or diffusion of common thought and knowledge 

of agricultural, commercial, and mechanical resources. 
Increasing number and power of social organizations. 

The British constitution is a government machine worked by 
the people. The powers of the monarch are so hedged about 
by those of the premier and the commons, the premier is so de- 
pendent on the following of the commons, the latter are so readily 
displaced by the popular vote, and this again is so easily led by 
argument or personal influence, that no part of the government 
can long act in a way which people in general regard as foolish 
or wicked without experiencing a change of heart or a fall. 
Although in its essential spirit democratic, yet the British con- 
stitution is more picturesque than the plainer and severer forms 
of France and America, since its legislative assemblies find 
their title and origin in the mediaeval assemblies of estates, 
wdiile the monarch and the court preserve the memories of the 
" Old Regime." Of these historic forms, the House of Lords 
and the king appear unnecessary to an American eye, since 
the real work of government is carried on by the more distinctly 
modern and representative parts of the constitution, the prime 
minister and the House of Commons. Although the House of 
Commons is a representative body in theory, and largely so in 
fact, it can never be the thorough tool of the democracy until 
its members are paid for their services, thus allowing the 
trading and laboring classes to send personal representatives. 
This imperfection, however, is partly counterbalanced by the 
superior independence of men, whose living does not depend on 
their expressed political opinions. The central figure of the 
government is, of course, the prime minister ; he embodies 
popular will and trust ; he is the responsible executive of the 



156 STUDIES nr general history. 

nation ; and so thoroughly is his power felt to be the leading 
one, that in common speech the prime minister and his fol- 
lowers are called "the government." 

Nothing more strikingly illustrates the great change that has 
passed over France within the centur}^ than to compare her 
present constitution with that of the "Old Regime" ; heredi- 
tary distinctions in society have vanished ; the whole people 
share in the government ; the church has ceased to be a dis- 
tinctly e part of the state. France indeed has become a more 
thoroughly modern state -than her leader, England, since every 
part of her government is directly representative of the will of 
the majorit}' of her citizens, and since her citizens include all 
eligible Frenchmen at home, or in the colonies. By this last 
inclusion, France has succeeded in binding her colonies to her- 
self in organic union, and thus in forming a genuine " Greater 
France." 

Germany differs from England and France in that it is a 
complex of historic states, where the problem of representation 
has been more difficult, because not onh^ citizens but govern- 
ments must be represented. These governments, too, differ 
wideh^ in spirit, form, history, and power; while one of them, 
the Prussian, maintains among the others a leadership almost 
amounting to autocracy. But the elastic fitness of the English 
constitution to modern political needs receives no better illus- 
tration than the fact that it has been made the successful work- 
ins basis for the o-overnments of two states so widelv different 
as German}^ and France, — the former the home of particu- 
larism, the latter thoroughly stamped with centralization. 

Not only the principles but the forms of these modern con- 
stitutions run parallel. To the king corresponds the emperor 
and the president ; the latter, however, adds to his power the 
respousibilit}^ of a prime minister. This responsibility and a 
limited term of office give him checks felt neither by king nor 
emperor. Yf ith the premier ranks the chancellor ; the House 
of Lords is copied b}^ the French Senate and the German 
Bundesrath ; while the purely nineteenth century parts of the 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 157 

constitution, the lower houses and the citizen body, are very 
nearly alike. 

The modern state thus stands before us, the complete, ad- 
justable organ of popular will. It has secured itself against 
domestic tyranny by a cunning system of constant and bal- 
anced checks ; against foreign invasion by citizen-armies and 
a central responsible chief. It embodies within itself the 
representative principle discovered b}^ the towns in the feudal 
age, and the equal citizenship of the classic republics ; but it 
has learned to combine the two, so that its popular assemblies 
are neither confined to the representation of a single city as in 
antiquity, nor to the representation of separate hereditary 
classes as in the mediaeval age. The newspaper and the tele- 
graph serve the purpose of the crowded "market-place," and 
enable a widely scattered population to learn, discuss, and 
judge at the same hour the events of each passing day, thus 
binding areas of thousands of miles into an intelligent, sympa- 
thetic, political unit. Thus for the state, space is destroyed ; 
and the practical difficulty felt by antiquity of forming a suc- 
cessful republic larger than the area of a single city, has disap- 
peared. Nevertheless, in the modern as in the ancient state, 
' ' Persuasion " is the goddess who grants political power ; a 
power no man can keep unless he keep as well the approval of 
the majority of his fellow-citizens. Our armies, again, are of a 
new t3"pe. The mercenaries who played so important a part in 
antiquit}^ the mediaeval warrior-bauds of vassals, following 
their knightl}^ landlords, are alike displaced by citizen-armies, 
regularlj^ trained and paid to serve their wliole country and their 
own country. 

In noting the other features of organized social life in our 
own centur}^, we are struck by the endless number of organiza- 
tions, and b}' the fact that they are almost without excep- 
tion formed in the interests of genuine progress, and that a 
progress toward the higher, freer, more spiritual life of man. 
Many of them are absolutely new ; others bear some resem- 
blance to older forms ; thus, the trades-union recalls the guild, 



158 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

the colonial empire of England has points of resemblance with 
the empire of Rome. But the resemblances are superficial ; the 
time is great and original, and gives its own peculiar stamp to 
all its living forms. 



The constitutional state is distinctly of the nineteenth cen- 
tury ; the nation-states appeared with the opening of the 
Renaissance, but our own century has notably increased their 
number, strengthened the spirit of nationalit}' and the con- 
sciousness of race-relationships. Thus in the modern as the 
ancient state appears the strong kinship bond with a common 
fatherland or mother-country as a common ancestor. The 
strong tendenc}^ toward the formation of these national units is 
seen in the almost constant agitation, which desires for nation- 
alization have produced in one or another part of Europe. 
This desire has divided the Holy Roman Empire since its final 
fall into its true component parts, — a Protestant, Dutch- 
speaking Holland ; a Catholic, French-speaking Belgium ; a 
Catholic Itah' ; a union of the old German-born and German- 
speaking tribes into a Teutonic empire ; with this desire, 
Hungary has disturbed Austria ; Ireland besieged England ; 
Poland roused the S3'mpatliies and sometimes the indignation of 
civilized states ; pleading the rights of nationality, Greece 
commanded the services of Europe to obtain them ; by national 
sympathies or aspirations, Turke^^ has lost wholly, or in part, 
one after another of her little Slavic and Christian principali- 
ties, until, dismembered and disjointed, the Moslem Oriental 
state has won the nickname of the " Sick Man" of Europe! 

How far nationality can really settle the independence and the 
boundaries of European states is still an open question. When 
political boundaries follow strongly marked geographical bar- 
riers, such as Italy, Spain, and England possess, we will hardly 
expect political disturbance arising from this source ; but the 
partition of Poland shows how helpless a country is without 
such natural defences, while the able and increasingly success- 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 159 

ful agitations, for " Home-Rule " in Hungaiy and Ireland, 
have been strongly backed by their real geographical unity. 
German}', however, lies between two badly defined boundaries ; 
and the shifting fortunes of her Russian and French frontiers 
have proved already, and may perhaps in future prove, a som'ce 
of serious difficulty with a greedy or discontented neighbor. 

While Europe thus individualizes within, a glance at the map 
(pp. 520, 521) will show how rapidly she is penetrating or pos- 
sessing the rest of the world. Since the opening of the sixteenth 
centur}', the great movement of population has been from Europe 
outward; her peoples have "swarmed" westward, eastward, 
southward ; with them they have carried their material civiliza- 
tion, their ideas, their institutions ; already the world itself 
grows cosmopolitan ; and each land gives of its own good in 
return for that of every other. As the Greek peopled the 
^gaean coasts and islands, as the Macedonian hellenized West- 
ern Asia, as the Roman peopled and civilized the lands of the 
Mediterranean basin, so the European will possess the world. 
With each of these movements, civilization has swept through 
wider circles of land and population ; on comparing its present 
area with that which it held a thousand years B.C., we note a 
marvellous change ; then, in a little knot of Oriental states, 
a rich, material civilization concentrated its enjo3'ments and 
powers in the lives of nobles, kings, priests, and merchants; 
now three great continents are thoroughly possessed by free 
peoples, among whom a high type of material and intellectual 
civilization is widelj^ spread, and still more widely spreading ; 
and the same leaven has begun to work through the continents 
that remain. 

But the movement is not all peaceful ; the urgent Europeans 
threaten to crowd each other hard in the most desirable parts 
of the outlying world ; in fact, the international relations of 
Europe are largely determined by colonial and commercial 
considerations ; thus Russia and England threaten in Asia, 
and clashing colonial interests may mean European war ; thus 
the determination that Russia shall not win Constantinople, 



160 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOHY. 

prolongs the existence of Turkey, and decides the combinations 
of Europe in every Eastern complication. 

Turning from the general history of Europe to the history of 
special countries, we find in nearly every case that this is 
so entangled with international or cosmopolitan movements 
that it only gives particular illustrations of general historic 
tendencies. Thus in England, as everywhere, the advance of 
democracy, colonial and commercial interests, and the problems 
of labor, have been the centres of action. There, as elsewhere, 
democracy has grown more and more complete with tbe ad- 
vancing centur}' ; one has but to compare the demands of the 
Chartists with the reforms made by Parliament from 1848 
onward, to see how rapidly this political tendency has changed 
from the dread to the pet of the public ; those demands, so 
shocking to the English feeling of the former time, are now 
almost wholh' answered. There, as elsewhere, but more than 
elsewliere, commerce has led men forth to civilize and conquer. 
So important are her colonies and her commercial routes, that 
the foreign relations of England may almost be explained by 
reference to these alone. Thus the fear of Russia determines 
her attitude in all affairs where Constantinople is threatened or 
involved, while the Suez Canal, her all-important highway to 
India, constantl}^ entangles her in Egyptian affairs. In her 
colonial and commercial relations, England has proven herself 
at times the benefactor, at times the oppressor, of inferior 
races. But it may perhaps be said that such acts of injus- 
tice as the Opium War, and the imposition of her own ruler 
in Afghanistan, have been overbalanced by the higher civiliza- 
tion she has introduced, b3'' the roads she has opened, by the 
missionaries and schools she has protected, and by such meas- 
ures as the abolition of widow-burning and the suppression of 
the Thugs in India. 

In England, too, as elsewhere, the problems of labor have 
caused threatening movements and important legislation. 
First, the progress of mechanical invention substituted ma- 
chines for men in manufactures ; the first result of this was to 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 161 

throw out of work a mass of artisans, mostly skilled laborers, 
who had no other way of making a living than that the machine 
had taken. Then came the Corn-laws, which injured all classes 
by raising the price of bread, and only benefited for the time 
being the English wheat-growers, who, by holding a monopoly 
of a prime necessity, could say to the public, "Your money 
or your life." All along, too, one serious element^ in the Irish 
problem has been a labor-question in regard to the due rela- 
tions of various classes to the soil. 

In France, again, the trends of the century appear. The 
restored Bourbons, though forced to recognize constitutional 
forms, did not even learn from the Revolution that peace and 
order lay in the development, not the suppression, of liberty, 
and came back rather with memories of "how they used to 
do" than ideas of "how they ought to do." Their measures 
against the freedom of the press, as well as those taken after- 
wards by the third Napoleon, show how thoroughly men have 
begun to realize that the printing-press is the most formidable 
of modern political forces, since it is our present " organ of 
persuasion." That Louis Napoleon, although following much 
in their footsteps, did not follow the Bourbons into banish- 
ment, was due to the power of his name, which was associated 
with an epoch of true national glory, and with the first days of 
peaceful freedom from the " Old Regime." By appealing, too, 
to the universal vote, he not only recognized the fundamental 
political change of the Revolution,^ but assured his election 
by throwing it into the hands of an ignorant majority, whose 
political education had not yet extended far enough thoroughly 
to comprehend the Napoleons, beyond their "outward show." 

1 This is a social element ; added to this, as a political grievance, has 
been the lack of "Home-rule." (See also p. 159 of this manual, and 
compare Hungary.) 

2 The political revolution of modern times seems to be as thoroughly 
established in France as in England ; but France is as seriously threatened 
as the rest of the world by the social revolution springing from the 
demands of labor, and in Germany the story is the same. 



162 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

The special studies on the German Empire and the kingdom 
of Italy not only show the development of two powerful mod- 
ern states, but also illustrate the conquering power of ideas 
and ideals when once they reach the popular masses. In both 
countries the leading movements have been the same, — 
towards national union, and towards constitutional liberty ; of 
these, the latter has been part of an impulse common to all 
the civilized peoples of our century ; the former has been dis- 
tinctive of Germany and Italy, among the greater powers. 

In Germany, as in France, the free press has been the terror 
of the "Old Regime," and for the same reasons ; but in Germany 
has been added to that the influence of the schools and uni- 
versities ; the censorship of the press and that of the university 
have been the new persecutions which these new weapons have 
evolved ; although Austria has endeavored to meet them by set 
teaching of the principles and spirit of the older order. When 
Frederick William the Fourth declares, "A sheet of paper 
shall not come between me and my subjects," he forgets that, 
in the large modern state, a sheet of paper is the only possible 
means of communication between a monarch and his busy, 
widely-scattered subjects. 

But the outcome of events in Germany proves, beyond a 
doubt, the use of long-continued political agitation as an agent 
of political change. In Germany, as elsewhere, it has led to 
the full recognition of the principle that government should be 
for the people and by the people. The development of German 
unit}' shows the value of still another power in politics, — the 
power of enthusiasm. The common forms and traditions, the 
heroes and the deeds that warmed men's hearts with common 
pride in the German name, roused that pride at length to the 
making of an empire and a nation. 

The latest history of Italy, even more than that of German}^, 
has an epic unity and spirit. In 1815 Savoy alone was under 
native rule ; her government alone could appeal to native sup- 
port and sympathy. As part of the Holy Roman Empire, 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 163 

Italy had become since the days of Charles the Fifth, partly 
heritage of Spain, and partly heritage of Austria, while in the 
days of Pepin and Charlemagne, the pope had received as a 
gift his part of the soil of the Christian Empire. 

In Italy, the movement for nationality, inspired by the love 
of independence, — and the movement for constitutionalism, in- 
spired by the love of political liberty, were each sustained by 
great historic memories, reaching back to the days of the later 
Roman republic, when Italy was free, united, and great. 

Although the interference of European monarchs in Neapoli- 
tan affairs called forth Italian indignation, still it was a pure 
measure of self-defence, since the stirring of one people 
against a king might mean the stirring of Europe against the 
whole monarchic system ; thus England had stirred France, — 
France, Spain and German}-, — and Spain, in turn, had now 
roused Naples. Naples, indeed, could have been appeased, 
and the power of the king established by the prudent and 
genuine grant of a liberal constitution ; but with the troops of 
Austria and the sympathies of the monarchs behind him, the 
Neapolitan ruler naturally underrated the moral forces spring- 
inor to arms ao-ainst him. Indeed, the Italian struo-ole ao;ainst 
Austria was throughout the struggle of moral with physical 
powers. On the side of Austria were troops, and treasure, 
and the might of an old, successful name ; on the side of Italy 
were justice, truth, a never-yielding purpose and enthusiasm. 

Savoy alone was free to embody and lead the Italian asj^ira- 
tions, and give them political and military force. Victor Em- 
manuel as the one Italian, the one constitutional ruler of Italy, 
could command the respect, the loyalty, the admiration, of 
the whole peninsula. In order that Italy might win attention 
and respect from the European commonwealth, Cavour involved 
her in the Crimean War ; in order that she might claim the 
sj^mpathy and aid of France, he gave a daughter of old Savoy 
in marriage to a Napoleonic adventurer, thus taking advan- 
tage, too, of the historic enmity of Austria and France. 

The principle of popular government has never been more 



164 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

absolutely respected nor more noblj' used than in uniting state 
after state to patriotic, liberal Savo}^ ; and never has history 
more nearly touched the highest poetic justice than in the 
return of a pure Italian government to Rome, at once the 
geographic and historic centre of the whole peninsula. 

The question is often asked, "What is the relation of 
biography to histor}'? " In general, it may be said that there 
are no more important or significant historical facts, and no 
strono-er historical forces, than the lives of men. Wherever the 
teacher's time is short, and the era lie deals with great, he can 
do no better than to take some one man whose life was thor- 
oughly mingled with that of his time, and make as exhaustive 
a study as possible of his character, and its relations to 
the contemporary world. These character-studies form with 
younger classes an excellent concrete introduction to more 
abstract historical inquiries ; and even in the most abstract of 
these inquiries, one meets here and there men so intimately 
connected with affairs, that they seem, as it were, to have 
embodied their age or country in their own strong personalities. 
Victor Emmanuel belongs beyond a doubt among such men as 
these ; and Cavour and Mazzini do not fall far short of it. I 
have, therefore, in p. 533, introduced character-studies of these 
three, not alone on account of their intrinsic importance, but 
as excellent examples of the way in which biograph}* and 
history mingle. 

Cavour represents the conservative liberal ; the man who 
neither breaks with the old, nor rejects the new ; a man who is 
at once a devoted patriot and a prudent statesman ; a thinker, 
a worker, but in every deed and thought, practical ; with that 
rare power which can devote itself to an unattained ideal, and at 
the same time can see the very next step which must be taken 
to reach it. His patriotism bound him at once to the people 
and the monarch ; his prudence commanded the respect of the 
most conservative courts, and tempered the ardent action of the 
king ; while that genius of practical imagination which saw the 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 165 

possible relations of the distant and the near, enabled him to 
turn every circumstance and every resource to the freedom and 
unity of Italy, To accomplish this, he aimed at two things : 
to make Piedmont the leader of the peninsula ; to bring Italy 
into the European commonwealth ; while besides these imme- 
diate objects, his policy always had in mind that " inevitable 
future " of democracy. 

What Cavour w^ould and did accomplish by a policy of com- 
promise and delay, Mazzini wished to do by outspoken war on 
what he hated, and devotion unto death to what he loved. 
Each nature had its value in the making of Italy ; she needed 
the utter abandonment of self, the clear vision of ultimate 
destiu}', the religious fervor of Mazzini ; perhaps she needed 
even more the cool head of Cavour, since her foes were more 
easily to be overcome by skilful diplomacy and prudent delay 
than b}^ the most ardent assay of arms or eloquence.^ 

Although patriotism was the ruling passion in Cavour and 
Victor Emmanuel, as well as in Mazzini, in Mazzini this passion 
became a religion, with Italy for its deity and its conscience ; 
"the mart^TS " of the people's cause, "the adoration of prin- 
ciples," " the omnipotent duty," " your country, a visible evan- 
gel of love," — these are the phrases of a worship, a faith. 

If Cavour was the statesman, and Mazzini the prophet of 
the Italian movement, Victor Emmanuel was its hero ; trained 
as a soldier, he was bred for a time of war ; reared simpl}' and 
hardily, he had the respect of the simple and hardy classes, 
and could sympathize with them ; trained in the catechism and 
Roman history, he was a good Catholic and an intelligent 
patriot ; while he had at command the historic and popular 
tongues of his own Italy, and the cosmopolitan French of his 
best neighbor. Not only by training, but by nature, he was 
the true king of Italy ; an ardent patriot, he loved his land and 

' The fact that Mazzini was forced to publish his writings in London, 
shows that the censorship of the press excluded his influence from Italy 
as much as possible, where he most desired it to be felt ; incidentally, too, 
it shows the political freedom existing in England. 



166 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 

trusted his folk ; a prudent liberal, he neither offended too far 
the European monarchs when he hud not power to withstand 
them, nor did he hold back freedom from the people for an 
instant after he felt he could defend it ; but the man was more 
than the soldier or statesman ; his devoted, self-forgetful enthu- 
siasm drew to him the hearts of the whole people with a tide 
of passionate loyalty that swept away every barrier that party, 
and history, and religion itself could rear. 

I have named the sketch}^ extracts, pp. 534-538, a study on 
socialism, merely for the sake of uniformit}^, although they are 
worth little more than to attract attention to the aims of the great 
social revolution which seems to press nearer and nearer. Per- 
haps there is no subject of more immediate importance than 
this, and none more variously understood. The movement in 
general insists upon a substitution of the co-operative principle 
for that of competition, and therefore threatens the whole 
present system of industry ; it would make the state the owner 
of the means of labor, and therefore threatens all private 
property at present invested in these means with a transfer, if 
not with a loss ; its advocates are inspired with an earnest 
enthusiasm, and not rarely with a genuine devotion, which gives 
to socialism the powder of a faith ; its demands are backed by 
the actual physical force of an army of laborers, on whom 
society depends for food, and dress, and shelter, for transpor- 
tation and protection ; in common with Christianity, it teaches 
the brotherhood of man, and asserts the principle of helpful, 
social union, as against the law of the " struggle for exist- 
ence." After noting these points, the teacher may act his own 
judgment as to how far he ma}' wisely pursue a study, mate- 
rials for which he will find ready to his hand in every week's 
news, and in any population among which he lives. 

The points to be made from the " Study on 6," p. 539, are 
for the most part embodied in the foregoing summary. At 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 167 

least two days should be devoted to this study, the second of 
which ma}' be profitably spent in a general conversation in 
regard to the points suggested b}' the questions. The aim of 
the teacher in this study should be to rouse tlie student's 
interest in the greatness of the movements in the midst of 
which he himself lives. 



If the studies from p. 3 to p. 539 have been of any value, 
the ''General Review Study" on the last page needs no 
comment. 



^; 



tudies in General History, 



(looo B.C. to 1880 A.D.). A7t Application of the Scientific Method 
to the Teaching of History. By Mary D. Sheldon, Teacher of History 
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xvi + 556 pages. Price by mail, $1.75; Introduction price, ^1.60. 

In the sciences no instruction is now considered sound which 
does not bring the pupil into contact with the actual realities, and 
teach him how to handle and interpret them ; in literature, the study 
of that which the author has written is fast superseding that which 
is written of the author; in history, however, the best teaching is 
still too much based on the reading of manuals, and the best text- 
books scarcely admit the training of any power save that of memory. 

It is the object of this new text-book to give a collection of his- 
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the genuine text in Literature, thus stimulating, not only memory, 
but observation, judgment, and generalization. This historic mate- 
rial consists of maps, pictures, lists of important events, men, works, 
and deeds, tables of political organizations, and extracts from origi- 
nal sources, including constitutions, creeds, laws, chronicles, and 
poems. It is accompanied by questions which are of the nature of 
problems, answers to which must be worked out by the pupil him- 
self from the given data. The book thus serves as a little historical 
laboratory or museum, in which the student may learn how to inter- 
pret the facts of society, and by means of which pupils who take 
nothing more than the ordinary course of history, may obtain the 
benefit of that " 6V;/«>mry Method'''' so rapidly superseding every 
other in our leading colleges. 

By this method the student is compelled to do original work with 
original materials. Such original materials are often very difficult 
to find, and when found are inaccessible to any great number of 
pupils, besides being generally so bulky and confused as to require 
much time to select their really significant and instructive portions. 
To select these portions, and bring them within the limits and jDlace 
them in the relations demanded by the practical needs of the class- 
room, is one great aim of this work ; the other is, to set such ques- 
tions as will develop the historic meaning and connection of these 
materials, and at the same time call forth the native ability of the 
student to deal with social and political problems for himself. It is 
a book to be studied^ not read. , 



The Teacher's Manual, accompanying the Students' Edition, will 
contain summaries of all the results expected to be attained by the 
sUidents' work, together with suggestions as to class-room method, 
topics for examination and essay work, and more general views of 
the subject than can be given in the Students' PMition. 

The following letters from those who have used the advance 
sheets of the book give good evidence that it is as practical 
as it is new, suggestive, and inspiring : — 

C. A. Leonard, Central Univer- 
sity, Richmond, Ky. : I will say, also, 
that I am securing the very best results 
with the book — far better than my 
most sanguine hopes ever led me to 
expect. I examined the class to-day on 
the work gone over, and found them 
quite ready in their answers, and, above 
all, possessing a good, correct under- 
standing of the subject-matter. I have 
long desired something of the kind, and 
am glad such a book has been written. 
It is destined to revolutionize the study 
of general history and make pupils 
think for themselves. The work ought 
to meet with a very successful sale. 

P.S. — I should have spoken of the 
searching character of the questions in 
each " study." They are simply won- 
derful. In the first place, they show a 
most profound knowledge of the sub- 
ject on the part of the author, some- 
thing that always gives a student confi- 
dence in a book; and, secondly, do 
not imply their answers, do not suggest 
the answers from one another, but re- 
quire a thorough search, and make the 
students, if anything will, original and 
philosophical historians. Nothing could 
be better. You may use my name in 
unquaUfied commendation of the book. 
{Jan. 15, 1886.) 

Clara Conway, Principal Clara 
Conway Inst., Memphis, Tenn. : Shel- 
don's History is unquestionably supe- 
rior to any text-book of which I know. 
It is fresh, strong, bold, and inspiring. 



Every chapter is a revelation, every 
page a delight. It is excellent in plan 
and execution. By a method natural 
and easy, clear and logical, the student 
is led to gather for himself into one 
harmonious system every important 
factor in human civilization. It is like- 
wise, and most of all, eminently practi- 
cal in character and tone, dealing only 
with the great problems in human his- 
tory, and ignoring the petty details that 
fill the pages of ordinary text-books. 
In the hands of the skilful teacher it will 
be a tremendous power ; in the hands 
of the unskilled, it must be the best 
helper among historical books towards 
knowledge, discipline, mental strength, 
and culture. {y^^"- 9, 1886.) 

Mary L. Estes, Teacher of His- 
tory in Clara Conway Institute : Shel- 
don's History meets a need which 
confronts the earnest and thoughtful 
teacher in every department of sociol- 
ogy. " Hov^f shall I enable the pupil to 
feel the oneness of humanity, to be pres- 
ent at the unfolding of the laws of 
national growth, and to grasp, with any 
degree of firmness, the complexity of 
the social mechanism," is the ever re- 
curring question, equal in perplexity 
and imperativeness. While much can 
be. and indeed must be, done by the 
te^tcher in infusing a spirit of philos- 
ophy into the study of history, no one 
\\ ill question the value of a good text- 
book, both as a frame-work and as an 
authority. Such a guide can be found 



in Sheldon's History. Second only to 
its value in the application of philos- 
ophy to history is the wholesomeness 
of its influence in stimulating thought 
and inquiry. I'he activity of the mind 
attendant upon the agitation of the 
problems presented for solution, can- 
not but be invigorating in effect, while 
the habit of free discussion, to which it 
leads, must have the tendency to a- 
waken inquiry, and to quicken interest 
in historical studies. (y^«. 9, 1886.) 

The Misses Masters, Dobbs 
Ferry, N. Y. : I write especially to as- 
sure you of our great satisfaction with 
Prof. Sheldon's book. Our history 
class are fascinated with it, and we find 
it invaluable. We shall be very glad 
to have the completed volume. We 
shall need about twenty-two copies. 
{Nov. 24, 1885.) 

We have used Miss Sheldon's His- 
tory for two months, and find that the 
tendency of her method is to quicken 
the intellect, as well as to store the 
memory. The curiosity of the pupils 
is constantly stimulated by the acute 
questions, and their reasoning powers 
are strengthened by discovering for 
themselves the logic of historical events. 
Both teacher and pupils feel every day 
an increasing enthusiasm for this ad- 
mirable book. {Dec. 2, 1885.) 

Jennie I. Ware, Teacher in 
charge of Histoiy, Worcester High 
Sch., Mass. : I have examined Shel- 
don's History as carefully as possible 
in this brief time, and have used it as 
supplementary to other material in my 
classes. To me, its advantages over 
other general histories consists in the 
selections of the most helpful illustra- 
tions ; the translations given from 
original sources ; and the questions 
in the " studies," capable of producing 
some individual thought in the pupil. 
In each of the above cases the very 
best points have been taken. In the 



department of modern history I think 
the book supplies a much-needed work. 
The whole story, of Italy, for example, 
is concisely told. I should like to try 
it with a class in mediaeval and mod- 
ern history. {Jan- 8, 1886.) 

Mary B. Whipple, Teacher of 
History in the Worcester High School, 
A/ass.: In the teaching of ancient history 
I have used some of the material and 
questions from Prof. Sheldon's Studies 
in General History. The questions 
are just the ones to produce thought in 
the mind of the pupil, and are so defi- 
nitely and clearly stated as to receive 
the desired answers. I have not the 
least doubt as to the practical v/orking 
of the book, and should heartily com- 
mend its use in high schools and 
academies. (Dec, 15, 1885.) 

Helen M. Parkhurst, Teacher of 
History, Worcester High School, Mass. : 
I have used Miss Sheldon's Studies in 
General History for supplementary 
work in my class with good results. 
The questions necessitate thought and 
reasoning on the part of the pupil, and 
are admirably fitted to effect that ob- 
ject. I see no reason why it should 
not succeed perfectly as a regular text- 
book. I think the work cannot be too 
highly commended. {Dec. 15, 1885.) 

E. J. Colcord, Teacher of His- 
tory in Vermo?it Academy, Saxton's 
River, Vt. : Let me tell you what led 
us to adopt it in our classes here. I 
think it excellent, first because it has 
through it all a scientific theory of 
teaching — because it aims at a true 
historic method. It is the first book of 
its kind to recognize, as the important 
end of historic study, the learning of 
retisons, and not simply dry facts; the 
cultivation of thought, not the recita- 
tion of stories ; giving the scholar some- 
thing to study, and not merely some- 
thing to learn. I like it especially, too, 



because it does not propose too much. 
All other so-called text-books on his- 
tory have seemingly been made on the 
assumption that teachers as well as 
scholars know but little about the sub' 
ject in question. They have aimed, 
therefore, to do the whole work of the 
class-room. This no text-book on 
general history can hope to do. Shel- 
don's History aims to supplement the 
work of a teacher, and yet it does this 
in a way so judicious that even the 
poorly equipped will find ample sup- 
port, and the well-informed will not 
find its aid cumbersome or needless. 
Again, it is the only book that I know 
of claiming to be a text-book on gen- 
eral history which I feel quite ready to 
place in the hands of a class without 
qualification. All others are so brief 
and so tedious, that they seem designed 
to hinder and not to promote knowl- 
edge of the truth sought. Once more, this 
seems to me to be good because it has 
not neglected any means to the end in 
view. It has aimed to teach students 
to think, but it has not forgotten, also, 
to present the main substance of his- 
tory, and so has given one of the best 
means to secure the main end had in 
view, — education. I have long wished 
that we could have in our schools a 
book with a common-sense method. 
When I talked with publishers about a 
true text-book, and not a dreary out- 
line, I was told that such a book would 
not sell. Teachers, it was said, need a 
book to do their work for them. Shel- 
don's History means a revolution in 
history teaching. It will not do all the 



work of the teacher ; it will help, and 
this, too, in an admirable way. It will 
help by stimulating both teachers and 
scholars to thought and investigation. 
As I 'Said, I have not had time to try 
this book, but I fully expect to like it, 
and to find it a most useful auxiliary to 
my class work. {y^"' 15, 1886.) 

Jane E. Leonard, Teacher of His- 
tory^ State Normal School, Indiana, Pa, : 
I have used Sheldon's History in my 
class since the first pages came from 
the press, and I never used a book in 
my life which so fully met my idea of 
what a text-book should be, — a book 
which does not do the thinking for the 
pupil, but which furnishes him with 
material by which he can form judg- 
ments, make comparisons, and reach 
conclusions for himself. 

History taught in the manner indi- 
cated by Miss Sheldon's book becomes 
indeed an educative force. 
{Fed. 2, 1886.^ 

G. H. Davis, Bayshore, L.I. : I 
find it true that the book is a carefully 
chosen historical library. The pupils 
delight in studying it as an object, like 
an animal, rock, or tree. The book is 
a live collection of facts, and almost 
any teacher can, with its use, develop a 
good idea of human affairs. 
{Feb. 13, 1886.) 

Miss C. Rounds, Private School, 
Brooklyn, N. Y. : I like the History 
very much, and my pupils are enthu- 
siastic about it. {Mar, s, 1886.) 



D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, 
3 Tremont Place, Boston. 



16 AsTOR Place, New York. 
{With A. Lo'vdl ^ Co.) 



85 Metropolitan Block, Chicago. 
( JVi^h S. R. Winchell &- Co.) 



Methods of Teaching and Studying History. 

( Vol. I. Pedagogical Library.) Second Edition. Entirely recast 
and rewritten. Edited by G. Stanley Hall, Professor of Psychology 
and Pedagogy in Johns Hopkins University. l2mo. 400 pages 
MaiUng price, j^i.55; Introduction price, ^1.40. 

This book was intended to be the first of a series entitled a 
Pedagogical Library, devoted to methods of teaching, one volume 
of which was to be occupied with each of the more important 
branches of instruction in grammar and high schools. The design 
and plan of the work was not to produce systematic treatises, and 
still less to develop anything ultimate or absolute in method ; but 
to gather together, in the form most likely to be of direct practical 
utility to teachers, and especially students and readers of history, 
generally, the opinions and modes of instruction, actual or ideal, 
of eminent and representative specialists in each department. About 
half the material of the first edition has been eliminated from this 
second edition, and new matter substituted to an extent which 
somewhat enlarges the volume, and of a kind which, it is believed, 
so increases its value and utility that readers of the old edition will 
find this essentially a new work. The following Table of Contents 
will give a good idea of the plan and scope of this valuable 
book : — 

Introduction. By the Editor. 

Methods of Teaching American History. By Dr. A. B. Hart, Harvard 
University. 

The Practical Method in Higher Historical Instruction. By Professor Ephraim 
Emerton, of Harvard University. 

On Methods of Teaching Political Economy. By Dr. Richard T. Ely, Johns 
Hopkins University. 

Historical Instruction in the Course of History and Political Science at Cornell 
University. By President Andrew D. White, Cornell University. 

Advice to an Inexperienced Teacher of History. By W. C. Collar, A.M., 
Head Master of Roxbury Latin School. 

A Plea for Archasological Instruction. By Joseph Thacher Clarke, Director 
of the Assos Expedition. 



D. C. IIEAl'FI cSr- CO:S PUBLICATIONS. 



The Use of a Public Library in the Study of History. By William E, Foster, 
Librarian of the Providence Public Library. 

Special Methods of Historical Study. By Professor Herbert B. Adams, Johns 
Hopkins University. 

The Philosophy of the State and of History. By Professor George S. Morris, 
Michigan and Johns Hopkins Universities. 

The Courses of Study in History, Roman Law, and Political Economy at 
Harvard University. By Dr. Henry E. Scott, Harvard University. 

The Teaching of History. By Professor J. R. Seeley, Cambridge University, 
England. 

On Methods of Teaching History. By Professor C. K. Adams, Michigan 
University. 

On Methods of Historical Study and Research in Columbia University. By 
Professor John W. Burgess, Columbia University. 

Physical Geography and History. 

Why do Children Dislike History ? By Thomas Wentworth Higgpinson. 

Gradation and the Topical Method of Historical Study. Part L — Historical 
Literature and Authorities. Part U. — Books for Collateral Reading. 
Part HL — School Text-Books. Supplement. 

History Topics. By Professor W. F. Allen, Wisconsin University. 

Bibliography of Church History (see special index to this article). By Rev. 
John Alonzo Fisher, Johns Hopkins University. 

The following were notices of the first edition of the book : — 



The Nation : The general excel- 
lence and helpfulness of the book 
before us ought to secure it many 
readers. We can heartily recommend 
it, as well to teachers who are con- 
scious of deficiencies in their prepara- 
tion, as to principals and school boards 
who wish for assistance in laying out 
courses of study. It contains few de- 
tails of fact, but an excellent summary 
and analysis of principles. 

The American : The volume is 
certainly an excellent one, and one 
that ought help to fill a need where a 
need has been felt, and to create a 



desire for something better where in- 
dolence or brainlessness has brought 
about a perverse satisfaction. The 
question is whether the proportion of 
teachers anxious for and capable of 
something better will outnumber those 
" who merely hear recitations, keeping 
the finger on the place in the text-book, 
and only asking the questions conven- 
iently printed for them in the margin 
or back of the book." 

Yale Courant : It would certainly 
be a most decided improvement on 
the cut-and-dried text-book recitations 
that some of us have known. 



4 D. C. HEATH &- CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 

History Topics, for High Schools and Colleges. 

Part I. : Dynastic and Territorial History of Ancient and Modern 
Times. Part II. : History of the United States. With an Introduc- 
tion upon the Topical Method of Instruction in History. By WilliAiM 
Franxis Allen, Professor in the University of Wisconsin. Square 
i6mo. Paper 121 pages. Mailing price, 30 cts.; Introduction, 25 cts. 

A course in general history should leave the student in posses- 
sion of three things : First, an outline of chronology ; secondly, a 
knowledge of the great decisive events and names of history ; 
thirdly, some idea of the relation of contemporaneous events to one 
another at these great epochs, — as we may call them, — histoi'ical 
distances, historical ejnphasis, and synchronisms. The method here 
presented, by its strictly chronological arrangement and its selection 
of special topics, is intended to accomplish the two first of these 
ends; a synchronistic table, carefully drawn up by each member of 
the class, with strict adherence to chronological proportion, will 
accomplish the third end, while assisting in the clear exposition of 
historical distances. 

The first object of the topical method is to give prominence to 
the most inTportant names and events of history, and concentrate 
the reading of the students upon certain selected ones of these. A 
second object is to encourage independent research. 

In an appendix is given a classified list of those books which are 
considered most serviceable in connection with this method. 

Studies in General History (looo b.c. to isso a.d.j. 

An Application of the Scientific l\/letliod to the Teaching of History. 

By Mary D. Sheldon, formerly Prof, of History in Wellesley College 
and Teacher of History in the Oswego Normal School, N.Y. 

This new text-book gives a collection of historic material which 
may be dealt with at first-hand, as the pupil deals with the actual 
substance in chemistry, thus stimulating, not only memory, but 
observation, judgment, and generalization. 



D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, 
3 Tremont Place, Boston. 



The Foundation of Death. 

A Study of the Drink Question. By AXEL GusTAFSON. American 
Copyright Edition. 629 pp. i2mo. Cloth. Mailing price, ^2.00; 
Introduction price, $1.60. 

As may be learned from the subjoined notices, this book has 
already been accepted in England as the most complete work on 
the subject ever published, and one that will be " the Bible of tem- 
perance reformers for years to come." It is pronounced the fairest, 
most exhaustive, freshest, and most original of all the literature on 
the subject that has yet appeared. It is impartial and careful in its 
evidence, fair and fearless in its conclusions, and its accuracy is 
vouched for by the best physiologists and physicians. 

The book was not made to prove a theory, but was the out- 
growth of a pure and unprejudiced seeking after the truth. The 
drinking habits of the English people, as they were illustrated in 
the streets and homes of London, first led the author to examine 
the drink question, and " The Foundation of Death" is the outcome 
of his researches. 

In preparation for this work, the author has made exliaustive and 
impartial researches in the alcohol literature of nearly all countries, 
having examined, in the various languages, some three thousand 
works on alcohol and cognate subjects, from a large proportion of 
which carefully selected quotations are made. 

It contains a bibliography of over 2000 works, arranged chrono- 
logically, and the works of each country separately. As far as has 
been possible, all departments of this study have been brought up 
to date. 

The scope of the work, as to the variety of standpoints from 
which it is treated, is indicated in the following list of chapters. 

I. Drinking Among the Ancients. 

II. The History of the Discovery of Distillation. 

III. Preliminaries to the Study of Modern Drinking. 

IV. Adulteration. 

V. Physiological Results ; or, the Effects of Alcohol on the Phy- 
sical Organs and Functions. 
VI. Pathological Results ; or, Diseases caused by Alcohol. 
VII. Moral Results. 



D. C. HEATH ^ CO:S PUBLICATIONS. 



VIII. Heredity ; or, the Curse entailed on Descendants by Alcohol. 
IX. Therapeutics; or, Alcohol as a Medicine. 

X. Social Results. 
XI. The Origin and Causes of Alcoholism. 
XII. Specious Reasonings concerning the Use of Alcohol. 
XIII. What can be done. 



Cardinal Manning : I have seen 
enough of it to say that I know of no 
other work so elaborate or so complete. 
The immense mass of miscellaneous 
knowledge contained in it can, so far 
as I know, be found nowhere else ; and 
the arguments by which you prove the 
perilous and pernicious effects of intox- 
icating drink, in all its forms, are, in 
my judgment, irresistible. 
{Au^. 13, 1884.) 

W. S. Caine, MP.; It is not possible 
to speak too strongly of its great value to 
the temperance movement. It should 
be in the library of every politician and 
social reformer. {Aug. 12, 1884.) 

Canon Ellison, Chairman of the 
C. E. T. S. : I can conceive nothing 
better calculated to awaken enthusiasm 
in temperance reform where it does 
not yet exist, or to sustain it where it 
does. {Aug. 5, 1884.) 

Rev. Newman Hall : The book 
bids fair to be for many years to come 
the text-book of temperance reformers. 
{A7ig. 5, 1884.) 

Samuel Morley, M. P.: The 
more I have thought on the subject, the 
more convinced I am that the book 
will supply a want much felt. 

Stopford A. Brooke : It has been 
done with sincere fidelity to the subject. 
In fact, it is just what is wanted, — a 
book eminently usable, which will sup- 
ply in portable and admirable form the 
ground-work of lectures, addresses, etc. 



Dr. B. W. Richardson, m the 

Asclepaid : For a long time it will be 
a text-book among temperance re- 
formers. 

Dr. James Edmunds, Senior 
Physician, London Temperance Hos- 
pital : The scientific and physiological 
data are very exact and well digested, 
and I think it will prove the best vol- 
ume now before the public. 

Dr. Norman Kerr: This great 
work will, I feel convinced, have a pro- 
found and permanent influence on the 
educated mind, and on the public 
opinion of America, Britain, and the 
continent of Europe. 

Dr. Robert Laird Collier : It is 
an original and thorough treatment ot 
the subject, and must become a perma- 
nent text-book in the literature of tem- 
perance. The book is as interesting 
as a novel, and as instructive as a treat- 
ise on science. 

Hon. Neil Dow, Portland Me. : 
I have examined it with great satisfac- 
tion. It is an admirable work, and 
ought to be in the hands of everybody 
who takes an interest in the solution of 
the great problem. It is a resume of 
all that concerns the relation of alco- 
holism to the individual and to society. 
{Sept. 3, 1884.) 

Dr. Daniel Dorchester, Natick, 
Mass. : I regard it as a volume of un- 
usual value, and very timely. It will 
command close study and be of great 



TRMPF.RAXCP. 



service to clergymen and other temper- 
ance workers, teachers of hygiene and 
temperance, and all who desire to un- 
derstand the alcohol question. It 
comprises the latest scientific data 
bearing on the subject of alcohol. 
i^Sept. 5, 1884.) 

Dr. A. A. Miner, Boston : It ap- 
pears to be a complete thesaurus of 
information on the drink problem. It 
is a work of extraordinary value. 
i^Sept. 6, 1884.) 

Rev. M. J. Savage, Boston: It 
seems to me a sort of distilled and con- 
centrated library. It aims — and, so 
far as I am wise enough to judge, suc- 
cessfully — to sum up the whole case 
for and against the use of alcohol. It 
appears to me impartial, and to use 
strong language only when amply war- 
ranted by facts. I wish this work might 
become a text-book in the schools. 
iAug. 29, 1884.) 

Mrs. Mary A. Livermore, Pres. 
of the Womatis Christian Temperance 
Union : Here, at last, is a work on " the 
grave problem of alcohol and human 
life " which is exhaustive. 

The London Athenseum: It 
has, as far as we have tested it, the 
merit of accuracy. Mr. Gustafson has 
been fair in his selections, often repro- 
ducing passages which tell against his 
own convictions. We have not found 
any important book omitted from the 
admirable bibliography. 

The London School Board 
Chronicle : It would not be easy to 
overrate the value of the work in the 

hands of the teacher. 

Julius H. Seelye, Pres, Amherst 
College, Mass. : I find the book a 



treasure-house of invaluable informa- 
tion on the various matters involved in 
what may be called the " Liquor Ques- 
tion." The remedial treatment of the 
evil is also amply considered, and I 
wish the book might be put into the 
hands of every teacher. 
{Sept. 17, 1884.) 

N. E. Journal of Education: 

This book exhausts the entire subject. 
The author has come to his conclusions 
with a force of reasoning that cannot 
fail to be convincing to every fair, hon- 
est, and unprejudiced mind. Its wide 
circulation will produce great good. 

Medical Temperance Journal, 

Lotidon : We are, as a medical journal, 
concerned with those portions of Mr. 
Gustafson's masterly production whicii 
more immediately relate to chemistry, 
physiology, and pathology, and here 
his main conclusions are sound, while 
his deductions are free from several 
errors which have appeared in many 
popular books on the science of tem- 
perance. 

John B. Gough : It impressed me 
with its fulness of treatment of the 
subject, its great research and labor, 
its sustained interest, and variety of 
fact and testimony. I wish they would 
all read it; it leaves nothing to be said. 
{Dec. 23, 1884.) 

John G. Whittier: I have been 
reading with great interest and admira- 
tion Mr. Gustafson's masterly work. 
It is a treatise which entitles him to a 
high rank as a scholar and thinker, 
and to a place among the great bene- 
factors of mankind. {Dec. 11, 1884.) 

The N. Y. Tribune : It is the 
most thorough and careful study of the 
drink question that has appeared. 



Rducational Classics. 



The following books contribute so much toward the solution of 
educational problems as to make them indispensable to every 
teacher's library. 

Extracts from Rousseau's Em He. 

Containing the Principal Elements of Pedagogy. With an Introduc- 
tion and Notes by Jules Steeg, Paris, Depute de la Gironde. Trans- 
lated by Eleanor Worthington, recently of the Cook County Normal 
School, 111. 5 by 7^ inches. Cloth. 157 pp. Price by mail, 80 cts.; 
Introduction price, 75 cts. 

" There are fifty pages of the Emile that should be bound in velvet and 

gold." VOLTAIKE. 

M. Jules Steeg has rendered a real service to French and Ameri- 
can teachers by these judicious selections from Rousseau's Emile. 

Emile is like an antique mirror of brass, — it reflects the 
features of educational humanity no less faithfully than one of more 
modern construction. In these few pages will be found the germ of 
all that is useful in present systems of education, as well as most of 
the ever-recurring mistakes of well-meaning zealots. 

The eighteenth century translations of this wonderful book have 
for many readers the disadvantage of an English style long disused. 
It is hoped that this attempt at a new translation may at least have 
the merit of being in the dialect of the nineteenth century, and may 
thus reach a wider circle of readers. 

Pestalozzi's Leonard and Gertrude. 

Translated and abridged by EvA Channing. With an Introduction by 
G. Stanley Hall, Professor of Pedagogy in Johns Hopkins University. 
5 by 7! inches. Cloth. xii+ 193 pp. Price by mail, 80 cts.; Intro- 
duction price, 75 cts. 



ED UCA TIONAL CLA SSICS. 



Externally, " Leonard and Gertrude " occupies a somewhat pecu- 
liar position in literature, since it is neither precisely a story nor a 
pedagogical treatise. It might rather be called a realistic picture of 
Swiss peasant life in the last century, which, if not of absorbing 
interest, yet contains much that is curious and instructive concern- 
insf old manners and customs. But the moral value of the work is 
far more than this. In describing the measures taken to reform 
the corruption and raise the moral standard of the little village of 
Bonnal, the author expresses his views on some of the greatest 
social and political questions of all ages. His opinions and theories 
on educational topics are scattered incidentally throughout the book. 

\_From Translator' s Preface. 

This is a book which all good teachers should read with care ; 
and having read it, Avill thank the translator for the great and dis- 
criminating labor she has spent upon the very voluminous and 
intractable original in converting it into the present pleasing form. 

[From Introduction by G. Stanley HalL 

LBUQnCl / or. The Doctrine of Education. 

A translation from Jean Paul Frederick Richter. 5 by 7^ inches. 
Cloth. xliv + 413 PP' Price by mail, ^1.15; Introduction price, 
$1.00. 

We add this volume to the series in the belief that it will tend to 
ameliorate that department of education which is most neglected 
and yet needs most care, — home training. 

Among other topics it treats of: — 

The Importance of Education. Development of the Desire for Intel- 

The Spirit and Principle of Education. lectual Progress, 
To Discover and to Appreciate the Speech and Writing. 

Individuality of the Ideal Man. Attention and the Power of Adaptive 
Religious Education. Combination. 

The Beginning of Education. Development of Wit. 

The Joyousness of Children. Development of Reflection. 

Games of Children. Abstraction and Self-Knowledge, to- 

Music. gether with an extra paragraph on 

Commands, Prohibitions, Punish- the Powers of Action and Business. 

ments. On the Education of the Recollection 

Physical Education. — not of the Memory. 

Female Education. Development of the Sense of Beauty. 

The Moral Education of Boys. Classical Education. 



EDUCATIONAL CLASSICS. 



Rosmini's Method in Education. 

Translated from the Italian of Antonio Rosmini Serbati by Mrs. 
William Grey, whose name has been widely known in England for 
many years past as a leader in the movement for the Higher Education 
of Women. 5 by 7^ inches. Cloth. About 400 pp. Price by mail, 
^1,75; Introduction price, $1.60. 

This is a work of singular interest for the educational world, and 
especially for all those who desire to place education on a scientific 
basis. 

It is an admirable exposition of the method of presenting knowl- 
edge to the human mind in accordance with the natural laws of its 
development ; and the disciples of Froebel will find in it not only a 
perfectly independent confirmation, but the true psychological 
estimate of the principles of Frcebel's kindergarten system. We 
believe that this translation of the work of the great Italian thinker 
will prove a boon to all English-speaking lovers of true education 
on both sides of the Atlantic. [Ready in May. 

Habit and its Importance in Educati on. 

Translated from the German of Dr. Paul Radestock, by Fannie A. 
Caspari, Teacher of German, Girls' High School, Baltimore, Md. ; with 
an Introduction by Dr. G. Stanley Hall, of Johns Plopkins Univer- 
sity. 5 by 7I inches. Cloth, Introduction + 115 pp. Price by mail, 
70 cts.; Introduction price, 60 cts. 

Prof. Radestock has devoted some of the best years of his life to 
practical teaching and to researches in the principles at the base of 
most habits. In this little book he draws freely upon the work of 
men like Wundt, Horwitz, and Lotze in Germany, and contem- 
porary writers like Maudsley, H. Jackson, and the school of Spencer 
in England, and Ribot, Renomier, and Charcot in France. 

A study of the book will impress one anew with the fact that all 
true education is but a building up of habits ; but that, in order to 
have the building strong and beautiful, both physical and psycho- 
logical laws should be observed. Normal School students especially 
will, on reading this book, find themselves confronted by some of 
tlie most fascinating phenomena of mental science, and will feel 
with renewed vigor what a responsible thing is this training of the 
human soul from the first faint dawn of the intellect and will to the 
full glory of manly and womanly hearts and minds. 



EDUCATIONAL CLASSICS. 



Gill's Systems of Education. 

A history and criticism of the principles, methods, organization, and 
moral discipline advocated by eminent educationists. By JoilN GiLL, 
Professor of Education, Normal College, Cheltenham, England. 
4^ by 61 inches. Cloth. viii+3i2pp. Price by mail, $i.io; Intro- 
duction price, ^i.oo. 

School education has to become a science. One means to this 
end is to gather and examine what has been done by those who 
have been engaged therein, and whose position or success has given 
them a right to be heard. Others have been employed, if not m it, 
yet about it. School education at its present standpoint, is the result 
of many agencies, individual, social, and national, and these have 
been very varied, and often antagonistic. It has been a growth, to 
which the philosopher, the politician, the doctrinaire, and the 
amateur have contributed, as well as the actual workers in schools. 
With these it has been a course of efforts, schemes, mistakes, and 
failures, but sometimes of partial successes, all of which have yielded 
something to the fabric as it now stands. The Author's hope is that 
the sketch here attempted may stimulate those just starting in their 
profession, ever to work with the purpose of ultimately placing their 
art on a scientific basis. 

Lectures to Kindergartners. 

By Elizabeth P. Peabody. Published at the urgency of a large 
number of Kindergartners, inasmuch as Miss Peabody is no longer 
able to speak viva voce. \_Ready in May. 

The first of these lectures introduced and interested the Boston 
public in Kindergarten education. The seven others are those 
which, for nine or ten successive years, Miss Peabody addressed to 
the training classes for Kindergartners, in Boston and other cities. 
They unfold the idea which, though old as Plato and Aristotle, and 
set forth more or less practically from Comenius to Pestalozzi, was 
for the first time made into an adequate system by Frcebel. The 
lectures begin with its natural exemplification in the nursery, fol- 
lowed by two lectures on how the nurser}^ opens up into the Kinder- 
garten through the proper use of language and conversation with 
children, finally developing into equipoise the child''s relations to 
his fellows, to nature, and to God. Miss Peabody draws many 
illustrations from her own psychological observations of child-life. 



